UNITED  STATES 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 


UNITED  STATES  EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 


.VOYAGE 


U.  S.  EXPLORING  SQUADRON, 

COMMANDED   BY 

CAPTAIN  CHARLES  WILKES, 

OF  TUB   UNITED   STATES  NAVY, 

IN  1838,  1839,  1840,  1841,  AND  1842: 

3  ^ 

TOGETHER  WITH 

EXPLORATIONS  AND  DISCOVERIES  MADE  BY 
ADMIRAL  D'URVILLE,  CAPTAIN  ROSS, 

AND  OTHER  NAVIGATORS  AND  TRAVELLERS; 

AND  AN  •!•»'•■«■« 

ACCOUNT  OF  THE  EXPEDITION  TO  THE  DEAD   SEA, 

— ^Hsa-sa^  UNDER  LIEUTENANT  LYNCff.   '  "  • ' ;  .    •  •*  'I  * 

BRAT 
ov  th* 

UNnTERSITT 

^ALlFOB^/^Y    JOHN    S.    JENKINS, 

ior  or  "the  life  of  silas  wright,"  "political  history  of  new  tore," 

"HISTORY  OF  THE   WAR   WITH   MEXICO,"   ETC.,   ETC. 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS. 
AUBURN  AND  ROCHESTER": 

ALDEN   AND    BEARDS  LEY. 

NEW  YORK: 

J.  0.  DERBY,  119  NASSAU  STREET. 

1855. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850, 

BT  JAMES   M.  A  LI)  EN, 

Ik  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Northern  District  of 
New  York. 

.    ......   • 

...••»  • 


.... 

*  ••  •> 

>•    •  * 


ITIXKmrlD  BT  T.  B.  SMITH 
2M>  WnLUM  STREET. 


/  OF  : 

I  UNIVERSIT" 

V 

PREFACE. 


It  has  been  my  main  object,  in  the  preparation  o{  this 
work,  to  present,  in  an  attractive  and  condensed  form,  an 
account  of  the  various  Expeditions  mentioned  in  its  pages, 
with  such  other  information  touching  the  places  and  localities 
described,  as  might  be  of  interest  to  the  general  reader ;  and 
if  the  public  approve  of  the  design,  additions  will  hereafter 
be  made  to  it,  treating  of  similar  enterprises  undertaken  by 
the  American  government. 

So  far,  however,  from  being  an  abridgment  of  the  published 
narratives  of  Messrs.  Wilkes  and  Lynch,  this  volume  will  be 
found  to  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  facts  not  embraced 
in  either  of  them.  These  have  been  obtained  from  divers 
sources.  While  engaged  in  preparing  the  work,  I  have 
consulted  the  Voyages  of  D'Urville,  Ross,  Beechey,  King 
and  Fitzroy;  Ellis'  Polynesian  Researches;  Crawfurd's 
Indian  Archipelago ;  Darwin's  Journal  of  Researches ;  Wil- 
liams' Missionary  Enterprises ;  Kidder's  Sketches  of  Resi- 
dence and  Travels  in  Brazil ;  Bingham's  Sandwich  Islands ; 
Mrs.  Meredith's  Sketches  of  New  South  Wales;  Earl's 
Enterprise  in  Tropical  Australia ;  Green  how's  History  of 
Oregon  and  California ;  the  travels  of  Hall,  Mier,  Moeren- 
hout,  Clarke,  Elliott,  Stephens,  Robinson,  and  Fisk ;  and  a 


VI  PREFACE. 

number  of  other  books  of  voyages  and  travels,  some  or  all 
of  which  are  referred  to  in  the  notes.  It  would  be  unjust, 
too,  not  to  acknowledge,  in  this  connection,  my  indebtedness 
to  the  official  narratives  of  Commanders  Wilkes  and  Lynch. 
I  have,  as  a  matter  of  course,  been  essentially  benefited  by 
them,  though  I  have  found  that  of  the  former  encumbered 
with  frequent  errors.  Something  may,  indeed,  be  conceded 
to  haste  in  preparing  a  work  for  the  press ;  but  it  is  hardly 
excusable  that  any  writer  should  be  so  far  wrong  in  his 
geography  as  to  confound  San  Salvador  with  Rio  Janeiro,  or 
so  much  at  fault  as  to  mistake  a  Peruvian  montana  for  a 
forest. 

It  would  have  been  easy  for  me  to  have  swelled  the  size 
of  the  Second  Part  of  the  book,  by  inserting  the  stereotyped 
gleanings  of  almost  every  modern  traveller  who  has  visited 
the  Holy  Land,  which  have,  from  continued  repetition, 
become  familiar  to  every  reader;  but  I  could  not  find  any 
justification  for  taking  that  course.  The  important  results, 
and  the  actual  information,  obtained  by  the  Dead  Sea 
Expedition,  may  be  reduced  within  a  very  narrow  compass ; 
and  the  account  of  it  seemed  to  me  appropriately  to  terminate 
with  the  breaking  up  of  the  Encampment  on  the  shores  of 
the  lake. 

Anachronisms  of  frequent  occurrence  may  be  found  in 
these  pages ;  but  as  my  desire  has  been  to  impart  informa- 
tion, they  have  appeared  to  me  to  be  justifiable.  The  Expe- 
ditions of  "Wilkes  and  Lynch  have  been,  as  it  were,  the 
threads  upon  which  I  have  strung  the  facts  procured  from 
different  sources,  many  of  which  are  not  accessible  to  the 
majority  of  readers,  or,  if  accessible,  few  have  the  leisure  to 
examine  them.  Many  of  these  facts  relate  to  periods  long 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  Expeditions  with  which  they 


PREFACE.  Vfi 

are  connected,  but  no  one  can  be  misled  by  this  arrangement ; 
and  if  the  reader  is  as  much  profited  by  the  perusal  of  this 
work,  as  I  have  been  by  the  examinations  necessary  to  its 
preparation,  he  will  not,  I  am  confident,  be  inclined  to  doubt 
(2tat  I  have  rendered  him  an  acceptable  service. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Early  Maritime  Discoveries,  25.  Indebtedness  of  America,  26.  Act  of 
Congress,  authorizing  Expedition  to  the  South  Seas,  26.  Organization 
of  the  Expedition,  26,  27.  Departure  from  Norfolk,  27.  Instructions 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  28,  29.  Orders  of  the  Commander  of  the 
Expedition,  29,  30.  The  Gulf  Stream  and  Currents,  30.  Western 
Islands,  31.  Approach  to  Madeira,  31.  Beautiful  Scenery,  32.  Arri- 
val at  Funchal,  32.  Appearance  of  the  Town,  33.  Other  Towns  on 
the  Island,  33.  The  Interior ;  Rich  Vegetation,  34.  Mode  of  Travel- 
ling, 34.  Population  and  Products,  35.  Manufacture  of  Wine,  35,  36. 
Sailing  of  the  Squadron,  36.  The  Cape  de  Verdes,  37.  Productions 
and  Exports,  37,  38.  Houses,  38.  Style  of  Dress,  39.  St.  Jago  and 
Porto  Praya,  39,  40.     Route  to  Rio  Janeiro,  40. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Appearance  of  the  City  of  Rio  Janeiro  from  the  Sea,  41.  Imperial  Pal- 
ace, Chapel,  and  other  Public  Buildings,  42.  Celebration  of  the  Em- 
peror's Birth-day,  42,  43.  Churches  in  Rio,  43.  Dwelling-houses  and 
Streets,  44.  Fountains,  45.  Population  of  the  City,  45.  Condition 
of  the  Society,  45,  46.  Fondness  for  Ornaments  and  Display,  46. 
Funerals,  46,  47.  Amusements,  47.  Slaves  and  Slavery,  47,  48. 
Beauty  of  the  Suburbs  and  Environs,  48,  49.  Discovery  of  Brazil,  49. 
History  and  Form  of  Government,  49,  50.  Greatness  of  the  Brazilian 
Empire,  50.  Magnificent  Flora,  50,  51.  Rich  Cabinet  and  Dye  Woods, 
51.  Cacao,  Mango,  and  Agave,  51.  Other  Plants  and  Shrubs,  51. 
Indigo  Plant,  and  Manufacture  of  Indigo,  51,  52.  Coffee  Shrub;  Mode 
of  Preparing  the  Berry  for  Market,  52.  Other  Products,  52.  Markets 
in  Brazilian  Towns,  53.     Parasites  and  Creepers  in  the  Forests,  53. 

I* 


CONTENTS. 

Birds  and  Animals,  53.  Wild  Horses  and  Cattle  of  the  Pampas,  53, 54. 
Gold  Mines,  54.  Diamond  Washings,  55.  Other  Mineral  Products, 
56.  Commerce  of  Brazil,  56.  Caoutchouc,  56.  Most  Important  Pro- 
ducts of  the  Southern  Provinces,  56,  57.  Importance  of  the  Brazilian 
Trade  to  the  United  States,  57.    Departure  of  the  Expedition,  57. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Pamperos  off  the  Coast  of  La  Plata,  58.  The  Rio  Negro ;  Barrenness  of 
the  Adjacent  Country,  58.  Pampas  of  the  Interior,  58,  59.  The  Gua- 
chos ;  their  Costume  and  Appearance,  59.  Settlement  at  El  Carmen, 
59,  60.  Early  History  of  Buenos  Ayres,  60.  Its  Population  and  Cap- 
ital, 60,  61.  Other  Important  Towns,  61.  Climate,  61.  Vegetable 
Products,  61.  Horses,  Mules,  and  Cattle,  61.  Mines,  61.  Lagunas  de 
Salinas,  61,  62.  Matte,  62.  Zoology,  62.  Native  Population,  62. 
Weapons  of  the  Indian  Tribes,  62,  63.  Alarm  at  El  Carmen,  63.  Ap- 
proach to  the  Southern  Extremity  of  the  Continent,  63.  Dreary  Ap- 
pearance of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  63,  64.  Straits  of  Magellan,  64.  Straits 
of  Le  Maire,  64.  .  Doubling  Cape  Horn,  64,  65.  Geographical  Position 
of  the  Cape,  65.     Arrival  of  the  Squadron  at  Orange  Harbor,  66. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Voyage  of  the  Relief,  67.  Discovery  of  Patagonia,  67.  Geographical 
Description,  68.  Mineral  Formations,  68.  Patagonian  Indians,  68,  69. 
Dress,  Appearance,  and  Mode  of  Life,  69.  Use  of  the  Bolas,  69,  70. 
Interviews  with  the  Natives,  70,  71.  Orange  Harbor,  71.  Visits  from 
the  Fuegians,  71,  72.  Description  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  72.  Principal 
Trees,  72.  Winter's  Bark,  72.  Geology,  72,  73.  Mountain  Scenery, 
73.  Animals  and  Birds,  73.  The  Fuegians,  Physiognomy,  Dress,  and 
Mode  of  Life,  73,  74.  Wigwams  and  Canoes,  74.  Superstitions,  74, 
75.  Arms  and  Weapons,  75.  Southern  Cruise,  75,  76.  Icebergs,  76. 
Vain  Attempt  to  Penetrate  beyond  former  Navigators,  76.  Beautiful 
Luciform  Appearances,  76,  77.  Return  to  Orange  Harbor,  77.  The 
Pacific  Ocean,  77.  Arrival  at  Valparaiso,  77.  Loss  of  the  Sea  Gull, 
78. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Splendid  View  of  the  Andes  on  approaching  the  Chilian  Coast,  79,  80. 
Country  around  Valparaiso,  80.     View  of  the  Town,  80,  81.     The  Har- 


CONTENTS.  XI 

bor,  81.  Fortifications,  81,  82.  Facilities  for  Landing,  82.  Choloes, 
82.  CustOm-house  and  Exchange,  82,  83.  Other  Public  Buildings,  83. 
Chingano  and  Samacueca,  83.  City  Prisons,  83.  Taverns,  83,  84. 
Efficiency  of  the  Police,  84.  Population  of  the  City,  84.  Mercantile 
Character,  84,  85.  Old  Spanish  Residents,  85.  State  of  Morals,  85. 
Cemeteries,  86.  Historical  Notices  of  Chili,  86.  Revolution,  and  Es- 
tablishment of  Independence,  86,  87.  Changes  in  the  Government,  87, 
88.  Administration  of  Prieto,  88.  Diego  Portales,  88.  Beneficent 
Legislation,  88.  Improvement  in  the  Finances,  88.  Form  of  Govern- 
ment of  Chili,  89.  General  Prosperity  of  the  Country,  89.  Boundaries 
of  the  Republic,  89,  90.  Peonage,  90.  Management  of  the  Large  Es- 
tates, 90.  War  with  Peru,  90,  91.  Defeat  and  Banishment  of  Santa 
Cruz,  91,  92.  Santiago,  92.  Imposing  Appearance,  92.  Public  Prom- 
enades, 93.  Cleanliness  and  Salubrity  of  the  City,  93.  Public  Edifices, 
93,  94.  The  Palace,  94.  Cathedral  and  Parish  Churches,  94.  The 
Mint,  94.  College  and  Public  Library,  94,  95.  Private  Dwellings,  95. 
Markets,  95.  Fine  Horses,  95,  96.  Amusements  and  Recreations,  96. 
Attachment  to  Religious  Forms,  96.  The  Oracion,  96.  Fashions,  96, 
97.  Population  of  Santiago,  97.  Coquimbo,  97.  Huasco,  97.  Con- 
cepcion,  97.  Valdivia,  97,  98.  Dress  of  the  Chilenos,  98.  Traits  of 
Character,  98.  Dwelling-houses,  99.  Indian  Population,  99.  The 
Cordilleras,  and  Intermediate  Valleys,  99,  100.  Climate  of  Chili,  100. 
Rivers,  100.  Geology,  100.  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  100,  101.  Chilian 
Forests,  101.  Productions,  101,  102.  Agriculture,  and  Implements  of 
Husbandry,  102.  Cattle-breeding,  102.  Wild  Animals,  102.  Birds, 
103.  Commerce,  103,  104.  Internal  Trade,  104.  Mode  of  Travelling 
and  Carrying  Burdens,  104,  105.  Manufactures,  105.  Mineral  Wealth, 
105,  106.  Copper  Mines  in  Coquimbo  and  Jajuel,  109.  Mining  Sys- 
tem, 106,  107.     Departure  from  Valparaiso,  107. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Island  of  San  Lorenzo,  108.  Harbor  and  Town  of  Callao,  109,  110. 
Road  to  the  Capital,  111.  Lima,  112.  Situation  of  the  City,  112.  Its 
Streets,  113.  Beauty  of  its  Public  Edifices,  113.  The  Plaza  Mayer 
and  Fountain,  113,  114.  Government  Palace,  Cabildo,  and  Cathedral, 
114.  Churches  and  Convents,  115.  Monastic  Establishments,  Hospi- 
tals, and  Asylums,  116.  Palace  of  the  Inquisition,  116.  University,  1 17. 
Mint,  National  Library,  and  Theatre,  117.  City  Wall,  117.  Spanish 
Colonization,  118.  Fortifications,  119.  Private  Houses,  119,  120. 
Pantton,  120.  Population  of  Lima,  121.  Other  Principal  Towns  in 
Peru,  121.  Cuzco,  122.  Arequfpa,  122.  Cs'rro  di  Pasco,  123.  Gua- 
manga,  123.     Huacho,  123.     Huancavelica,  124.     Truxillo,  124.     Early 


XU  CONTENTS. 

History  of  Peru,  124.  War  of  Independence,  125.  Dictatorship  of 
Bolivar,  125.  Revolt  of  the  Peruvian  Patriots,  125.  Civil  Dissensions, 
126.  Protectorate  of  Santa  Cruz,  126.  Present  Administration,  127. 
Population  of  Peru,  127.  The  White  Creoles,  127.  Peruvian  Ladies, 
128.  Mixed  Races,  129.  Influence  of  Catholicism,  130.  Style  o* 
Dress,  131.  Saya  y  Manto,  131.  Popular  Amusements,  132.  Aman- 
caes  Fete,  132.  Intoxicating  Drinks  and  Stimulants,  133.  Houses  of 
the  Peruvians  in  the  Interior,  133.  Beasts  of  Burden,  133.  Mode  of 
Travelling,  133.  Topography  of  Peru,  133,  134.  Character  of  the 
Soil,  134.  Harbors,  134.  Rivers  and  Lakes,  135.  Climate,  135.  Dis- 
eases, 136.  Earthquakes,  136.  Mineral  Wealth,  136.  Silver  Mines 
at  Cerro  di  Pasco,  137.  Mode  of  Working,  137.  Other  Mining  Dis- 
tricts, 138.  Agriculture,  138.  Implements  of  Husbandry,  139.  Pro- 
ducts of  the  Coast,  139.  Cotton,  Maize,  and  Sugar  Cane,  140.  The 
High  Lying  Districts,  141.  Aracacha,  Yucca,  and  other  Productions, 
141.  The  Olive  Tree,  142.  Castor  Oil  Plant,  142.  Plants  of  the 
Sierra,  142.  Quinua  and  Ulluco,  142.  Lucern,  143.  Fruits,  143,  144. 
The  Chirimoya,  144.  Peruvian  Bark,  145.  Balsam  of  Peru,  146. 
Tonga,  146.  Ratanhia,  146.  Flora  of  Peru,  146.  Commerce,  147. 
Exports  and  Imports,  147.  Roads,  147,  148.  Manufactures,  148. 
Birds,  149.  The  Condor,  149.  Wild  Animals,  150.  The  Llama,  150. 
Alpaca  and  Guanaco,  151.  The  Vicuna,  152.  Domestic  Quadrupeds, 
153.    Fine  Horses  and  Mules,  153.     Sailing  of  the  Squadron,  154. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Paumotu  Group,  155.  Clermont  de  Tonnerre,  156.  Unfriendliness 
of  the  Natives,  156.  Mode  of  Surveying  the  Islands,  156.  Other 
Islands  of  the  Group,  157.  Movements  of  the  Squadron,  158.  Boring 
on  Aratica  Island,  158.  The  Lagoons,  159.  Geology,  159.  Different 
Theories,  160.  Botany,  161.  Birds  and  Animals,  162.  Population. 
162.  Physical  Character  of  the  Inhabitants,  163.  Dress  and  Customs, 
163,164.     Mode  of  Constructing  Habitations,  164.     Canoes,  165. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

View  of  Tahiti  from  the  Sea,  166.  Society  Islands,  167.  Discovery  anu 
Description  of  the  Group,  167,  168.  Rivers,  168.  Harbors,  169.  Pa 
pieti  and  Matavai,  170.  Taloo,  171.  Establishment  of  Missions,  171. 
Adoption  of  a  Form  of  Government,  171.    Features  of  the  Constitution, 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

171,  172.  Queen  Pomare,  172.  The  King  Consort,  172.  Caricature 
of  Royalty,  173.  Tahitian  Politics,  173..  Police  Regulations,  174. 
Character  of  the  Natives,  174.  Former  State  of  Degradation,  174. 
Change  Produced  by  the  Missionaries,  175.  Influence  of  the  Climate 
on  the  Feelings  and  Disposition,  175,  176.  Personal  Traits  and  Char- 
acteristics, 176.  Appearance,  Customs,  and  Language,  177.  Style  of 
Dress,  178,  179.  Love  of  Flowers,  179.  Productions,  180.  Otaheitan 
Cane,  181.     Rich  Fruits,  181.     Wild  Banana,  182.     Guava  and  Cocoa, 

182.  Mode  of  Climbing  the  Cocoa-nut  Tree,  182.     The  Bread-Fruit, 

183.  Mahi,  184.  Diet,  and  Mode  of  Living,  184.  Zoology,  184,  185. 
The  Queen's  Palace,  185.  Native  Dwellings,  185,  186.  Furniture, 
186.  Commercial  Resources,  186.  Vessels  and  Canoes,  187.  Inter- 
nal Traffic,  187.  Manufactured  Products,  188.  Mode  of  Extracting 
the  Oil  of  the  Cocoa-nut,  188.  Arrow  Root,  188.  Beating  Tapa,  188, 
189.  General  Influence  of  the  Missionaries,  189.  Errors  Committed 
189,  190. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Arrival  of  the  Squadron  at  Tahiti,  191.  Friendly  Reception,  191.  Voy- 
age to  the  Samoan  Group,  192.  Geographical  Description,  192. 
Manua,  192.  Tutuila,  193.  Upolu,  193.  Beautiful  Scenery,  194. 
Manono  and  Apolima,  194.  Savaii,  195.  Streams  and  Lakes,  195. 
Formation  of  the  Islands,  195,  196.  Climate,  196.  Harbor  of  Pago- 
Pago,  196.  Apia,  197.  Other  Ports,  197.  Population  of  the  Group, 
198.  Personal  Appearance  of  the  Natives,  198.  Treatment  of  Women, 
198,  199.  Chastity,  199.  Traits  and  Characteristics,  199,  200.  Habit 
of  Bathing,  200.  The  "Devil's  Men,"  201.  Heathen  Women,  201. 
People  of  Savaii,  201.  Fondness  for  Traffic,  201.  Diseases,  202. 
Language,  202.     The  Maro,  202.     Titi,  and  other  Articles  of  Dress, 

203.  Ornaments,  203.  Tattooing,  203,  204.  Mode  of  Wearing  the 
Hair,  204.     Occupations  and  Amusements,  204.      Lascivious  Dances, 

204,  205.  Musical  Instruments,  205.  Games,  205.  Marriages,  206. 
Births  and  Burials,  206.  Manner  of  Cooking  Food,  206.  Disgusting 
Mode  of  Preparing  Ava,  206,  207.  Government,  207.  State  of  Soci- 
ety, 207.  Crimes  and  Punishments,  207,  208.  Heathen  Deities,  208. 
Successful  Labors  of  the  Missionaries,  208,  209.  Manner  of  Erecting 
Houses,  209,  210.  Arrangements  in  the  Interior,  210.  Culinary  Uten- 
sils, 210.  Native  Lamp,  210.  Commerce,  211.  Articles  adapted  for 
Exportation,  211  Mechanical  Skill,  211.  Tapa  and  Mulberry  Cloth, 
211,212.  Canoes,212.  Animal  Kingdom,  212, 213.  Mode  of  Taking 
Fish,  213.  Cultivated  Trees  and  Plants,  213.  Ti-root  Sugar,  213, 214. 
Yam  and  Taro,  214.     Beauty  of  the  Forests,  214.     Tamanu  and  Amai, 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

214.  Tou,  Toi,  and  Toa,  215.  Manufacture  of  Pitch  from  the  Bread- 
Fruit,  215.  Candle  Nut  Tree,  215,  216.  Surveys  of  the  Squadron, 
216.  Native  Fono,  216.  Departure  from  the  Samoan  Group,  and  Ar- 
rival at  Sydney,  217. 


CHAPTER  X. 

New  Holland,  or  Australia,  218.  Position  of  the  Continent,  218.  Firsf 
Discovery,  219.  Subsequent  Explorations,  219,  220.  Geographical 
Features,  220.  Mountain  Ranges,  221,  222.  Interior  of  the  Country. 
222,  223.  Geological  Formation,  223.  The  Uplands,  224.  Theory 
of  Formation,  225.  Harbors,  225.  Port  Jackson,  226.  Rivers,  226. 
The  Hawkesbury,  227.  The  Murray  and  its  Tributaries,  228,  229. 
Lakes,  229.  Character  of  the  Country  in  respect  of  Fertility,  230. 
Soil,  230.  Geology  and  Mineral  Substances,  230,  231.  Climate,  231, 
232.  Tropical  Australia,  232.  Wet  and  Dry  Seasons,  233.  Atmos- 
pheric Phenomena,  233.  Diseases,  234.  Peculiarities  in  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom,  234,  235.  General  Arrangement  of  Plants,  235,  236.  Cere- 
alia,  Native  Grasses,  and  Fruits,  236.  Other  Productions,  237.  Cotton, 
Coffee,  and  other  Tropical  Plants,  238.  Forest  Scenery,  238,  239. 
Timber  Trees,  239.  Eucalypti,  239,  240.  Medicinal  Trees,  240.  Im- 
pressions on  the  Mind  of  a  Stranger,  240,  241.  State  of  Agriculture 
and  Horticulture,  241.  Animal  Existence,  241,  242.  Birds,  242,  243. 
Cassowary,  242.  Black  Swan,  243.  Mammalia,  243.  Marsupialia, 
243,  244.  Kangaroo,  244.  Other  Genera,  244,  245.  Ornithorhynchus* 
245,  246.  Rodentia,  246.  Domestic  Animals,  246,  247.  Reptiles  and 
Fish,  247.  Insects,  248.  Personal  Appearance  of  the  Aborigines,  248, 
249.  Character,  249,  250.  Native  Huts  and  Weapons,  250.  Boo- 
mereng,  251.  Canoes,  251.  Mode  of  Living,  251.  Ideas  of  Gov- 
ernment, 252.  Customs,  252.  "  Making  Young  Men,"  252,  253. 
Amusements,  253.  Burying  the  Dead,  253.  Superstitions,  253,  254, 
255.  Poetic  Idea  in  Regard  to  Sleep,  255.  First  Colonization  of  Aus- 
tralia, 255.  Embarrassments  and  Changes  in  the  Government,  256. 
Cost  of  Establishing  Colony  of  New  South  Wales,  257.  Encourage- 
ment of  Immigration,  257,  258.  Speculation  in  Wild  Lands,  258. 
Subordinate  Penal  Colonies,  258.  Other  Settlements  by  Voluntary 
Immigrants,  258,  259.  West  Australia,  258.  South  Australia,  259. 
Port  Phillip,  259.  North  Australia,  259,  260.  Population  of  Australia, 
260.  Government,  260,  261.  The  Judiciary,  261.  Colonial  Life,  261, 
262.  Different  Classes  of  Society,  262.  Amusements  and  Fashions. 
262.  Schools,  Colleges,  and  Literary  and  Benevolent  Societies,  263. 
Style  of  Building,  263,  264.  Condition  of  the  Convicts,  264.  Their 
Treatment,  264,  265.     Discontinuance  of  New  South  Wales  as  a  Penal 


CONTENTS.  XV 

Colony,  265.  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  265,  266.  Geology, 
266.  Manner  of  Selling  Lands  in  the  Colony,  267.  Climate,  267. 
Vegetable  and  Animal  Kingdoms,  267,  268.  Harbors,  Rivers,  and 
Lakes,  268.  Government,  269.  Aboriginal  Race,  269.  Hobarton, 
269,270.  Launceston,  270.  Sydney,  270, 271.  The  Public  Building! 
and  Institutions,  271,  272.  Paramatta,  and  Woolongong,  272,  273, 
Adelaide  and  other  Towns,  273.  Commerce  of  the  Australian  Coloniet, 
273,  274.    Manufactures,  274.     Saltworks,  274. 


CHAPTER  XL 

Departure  of  the  Squadron  from  Sydney,  275.  Antarctic  Expedition,  276 
Macquarrie  Island,  277.  Land  supposed  to  Exist  near  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  277,  278.  Deceptive  Appearances,  278.  Actual  Discovery  of 
Land,  279.  Antarctic  Continent,  279.  Return  to  Sydney,  280.  Dis 
coveries  of  Biscoe  and  Balleny,  280,  281.  French  Expedition  under  M. 
d'Urville,  281,  282.  Expedition  under  Captain  Ross,  282.  Discovery 
of  Land,  283.  Mount  Erebus  and  Mount  Terror,  283,  284.  Icy  Bar- 
rier, 284.  Subsequent  Voyages,  284,  285.  Expedition  under  Lieuten- 
ant Moore,  285.  Results  of  the  Different  Expeditions,  285.  The 
Whale  Fishery,  285.  Magnetic  Observations,  285,  286.  Geology  of 
the  Antarctic  Continent,  286.  Belt  of  Ice,  286.  The  Icebergs,  286, 
287.  Splendid  Exhibitions  of  the  Aurora  Australis,  287.  Last  Traces 
of  Vegetation,  287,  288.  Animal  Kingdom,  288.  Sea-Lion,  and  Sea- 
Elephant,  288.  "  Killer,"  288,  289.  Wild  Fowl,  289.  Rendezvous  of 
the  Squadron  in  the  Bay  of  Islands,  289. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Acquisitions  of  England,  290.  New  Zealand,  291.  Discovery,  291.  De- 
scription of  the  Islands,  291,  292.  Formation  of  the  Country,  292. 
Rivers  and  Streams,  292,  293.     Harbors,  293,  294.     Bay  of  Islands, 

i     293, 294.     Towns,  294,  295.     Volcanic  Phenomena,  295.     Hot  Springs, 

■     295.    Minerals,  295,  296.     Soil,  296.     Climate  and  Diseases,  296,  297. 

.  *  Population,  297.  Abandoned  Character  of  the  Inhabitants,  297.  Oc- 
cupation by  Great  Britain,  297,  298.  Improvement  in  the  State  of 
Society,  298.  Government,  298,  299.  Native  New  Zealanders,  299. 
Their  Character  and  Customs,  300.  Ornaments,  300,  301.  Influence 
Exerted  by  the  Missionaries,  301.  Mechanical  Skill  of  the  Natives,  301, 
302.     Amusements,  302.    Power  of  the  Chiefs  in  Former  Times,  302, 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

303.  Fortified  Towns,  or  Pas,  303.  Native  Habitations,  303,  304. 
Furniture,  304.  Dress,  304.  Diet,  304,  305.  Taboo,  305.  Funeral 
Ceremonies,  305.  Botany  of  the  Islands,  305,  306.  Pine  Timber,  306. 
Fern  and  Flax,  306.  New  Zealand  Spinach,  306,  307.  Agriculture, 
307.  Foreign  Products,  307.  Animals  and  Birds,  308.  Exports  and 
Imports,  309.  Canoes,  309.  Manufactures,  309,  310.  Sailing  of  the 
Squadron,  and  Arrival  in  the  Tonga  Islands,  310. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Discovery  of  the  Tonga  Group,  311.  Description  of  the  Islands,  311, 312. 
Physical  Geography,  312.  Climate,  312,  313.  Fertility  of  Tonga,  313. 
Productions  of  the  Group,  313,  314.  Culture  of  the  Soil,  314.  Popu- 
lation, 314.  Personal  Appearance  of  the  Tongese,  314,  315.  Beauti- 
ful Women,  314,  315.  Cleanly  Habits,  315.  Character,  315.  Dress, 
315,  316.  Native  Warriors,  316.  Occupations,  316,  317.  Birds  and 
Animals,  317.  Fondness  for  Tobacco  and  Ava,  317.  Singing,  317, 
318.  Government,  318.  Ancient  Religion,  318.  Divinities,  318,  319. 
Island  of  Bulotu,  319,  320.  Dwellings,  320.  Articles  of  Furniture, 
320,  321.  Beautiful  Mats,  320,  321.  Nukualofa,  322.  Manner  of 
Fortifying  their  Towns,  322.  Expertness  as  Seamen,  322.  Canoes, 
322,  323.  Mode  of  Sculling,  323.  Missionaries,  323.  War  between 
the  Christians  and  the  "  Devil's  Party,"  323,  324.  Defeat  of  the  For- 
mer, 324.    Sailing  of  the  Squadron  for  the  Feejee  Group,  324. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Bad  Character  of  the  Feejee  Group,  325.  Discovery  and  Geographical 
Description  of  the  Islands,  326.  Important  Members  of  the  Group, 
327.  Eastern  Islands,  327.  Vanua-levui,  327.  Viti-levui,  328.  Ovo- 
lau  and  Malolo,  328.  Assua  Group,  329.  Rivers  and  Streams,  329. 
Harbors  and  Towns,  329,  330.  Levuka,  329.  Savu-Savu  and  its  Hot 
Springs,  329,  330.  Ambau  andRewa,  330,  331.  Sawau,  331.  Somu- 
Somu,  332.  Evidences  of  the  Volcanic  Origin  of  the  Islands,  333 
Geological  Formations,  333,  334.  Richness  of  the  Soil,  334.  Climate, 
334,  335.  Diseases,  335.  Productions,  335,  336.  Preservation  ot 
Bread-Fruit,  335,  336.  Fruit  and  Timber  Trees,  336.  Paper  Mulberry 
and  Tapa,  336.  Mangrove,  336,  337.  Edible  Roots,  337  Cotton 
Plant  and  Tree,  337.  Acclimated  Fruits  and  Vegetables,  337.  Flow- 
ering Plants  and  Shrubs,  337, 338.     Agriculture,  338.     Labor  performed 


CONTENTS.  XV11 

by  the  Women,  338.  Zoology,  339.  Whales  and  Turtles,  339.  Modes 
of  Taking  Fish,  339.  Biche  de  Mer,  339,  340.  Birds,  340.  Physi- 
ognomy of  the  Feejeean,  340,  341.  Appearance  of  the  Women,  341. 
Mode  of  Wearing  the  Hair,  341,  342.  Character  of  the  Natives,  341, 
342.  Cannibal  Propensities,  343.  Wars  between  the  Tribes,  343. 
Manner  of  Suing  for  Mercy,  343,  344.  Contrast  between  the  Charac- 
ter of  the  Feejeeans,  and  the  Scenery  and  Climate  of  the  Islands,  344. 
A  Field  for  the  Missionary,  344,  345.  Population  of  the  Group,  345. 
Government,  345.  Dress  of  the  Natives,  345,  346.  Attention  paid  to 
the  Toilet,  346,  347.  Tattooing  and  Circumcision,  347.  Mode  of  Sit- 
ting, 347.  Food,  and  its  Preparation,  347.  Pottery,  347, 348.  Manner 
of  Serving  up  Food,  348.  Ava-Drinking,  348.  Amusements,  348, 349. 
Language,  349.  Polygamy  and  Marriage,  349.  Putting  to  Death  the 
Old  and  Infirm,  349.  Treatment  of  Women,  349.  Divinities,  349,  350. 
Traditions  and  Superstitions,  349, 350.  Ambati,  or  Priests,  350.  Mbures, 
or  Spirit-Houses,  351.  Fortified  Koros,  351.  Furniture  in  the  Native 
Houses,  351.  Canoes,  351,  352.  Mechanical  Ingenuity,  352.  Tools, 
352.  Articles  of  Commerce,  352,  353.  Capture  of  Vendovi,  353. 
Burning  of  Tye  and  Sualib,  353.  Murder  of  Lieutenant  Underwood 
and  Midshipman  Henry,  354,  355.  Chastisement  of  the  Natives,  355. 
Departure  from  the  Group,  356. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Position  and  Destiny  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  357,  358.  Geographical 
Description,  358,  359,  360.  Hawaii,  358.  Maui,  359.  Lauai  and 
Kahoolawe,  359.     Molokai,  359.     Oahu,  359,  360.    Kauai  and  Niihau, 

360.  General  Character  of  the  Scenery,  360, 361.     Rivers  and  Streams, 

361.  Geology,  361.    Volcanoes,  361,  362.     Burning  Crater  of  Kilanea, 

362.  363.  Population,  363,  364.  Causes  of  the  Diminution,  364,  365. 
Heterogeneous  Mixture,  365.  Personal  Appearance  of  the  Natives, 
365,  366.  Characteristic  Traits,  366,  367.  Melancholy,  367.  Dress, 
367,  368.  Royal  Attire,  368.  Ornaments,  368,  369.  Sporting  in  the 
Surf,  369, 370.  Amusements,  370,  371.  Ancient  Sport  of  Hoolua,  371. 
Taboo,  371,  372.  Marriage,  372.  The  Kanakas,  372,  373.  Articles 
of  Food,  373.  Making  Poe,  373.  Use  of  Tobacco,  373.  Habits,  373. 
Deaths,  373,  374.  Mode  of  Salutation,  374.  Arrival  of  tho  Missiona- 
ries, 374.  Abolishment  of  Taboo  and  other  Ancient  Customs,  374, 375. 
Errors  Committed,  375.  Deplorable  Condition  of  the  Hawaiian,  375. 
The  Remedy,  376.  Acknowledgment  of  the  Sabbath,  and  Adoption  of 
other  Reforms,  376,  377.  Accession  of  Kamameha  III,  376,  377. 
Written  Constitution  Adopted,  377.  Declaration  of  Rights,  377.  Lead- 
ing Features  of  the  Constitution,  377,  378.    Police  Regulations,  378. 


XV111  CONTENTS. 

Taxes,  379.  Schools,  379.  Scenery  of  the  Islands,  379,  380.  Soil 
and  Climate,  380.  Common  Diseases,  380,  381.  Fruit  and  Timber 
Trees,  381,  382.  Vegetable  Productions,  382.  Failure  of  the  Attempt 
to  Manufacture  Silk,  382,  383.  Calabash-Tree,  383.  Pasturage,  383. 
Flowering  Plants  and  Shrubs,  383,  384.  Birds,  Fish,  and  Animals,  384, 
385.  Introduction  of  Fleas,  385.  Honolulu,  385,  386.  Waikiki,  386. 
Kailua,  387.  Lahaina,  387.  Hilo  Bay,  387.  Kealakekua  Bay,  387, 
388.  Waimea,388.  Building  Materials,  388.  Grass-Houses,  388,  389, 
390.    Furniture,  390.     Commercial  Importance  of  the  Hawaiian  Group, 

390,  391.     Exports  and  Imports,  391.    Tonnage,  391.    Manufactures, 

391,  392. '  Canoes,  392.  Arrival  of  the  Squadron,  392.  Voyage  to 
Oregon,  392,  393. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Cruise  of  the  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish,  394.  Washington  Island,  394. 
Phoenix  Group,  394,  395.  Union  Group,  395.  Description  of  the 
Islands,  395,  396.     The  Inhabitants,  396.     Dress,  396.     Houses,  396, 

397.  Temple,  397.  Wells,  397.  Canoes,  397,  398.  Mechanical  In- 
genuity, 398.     Dances  and  Music,  398.     Arrival  at  the  Samoan  Group, 

398,  399.  Burning  of  the  Heathen  Towns,  399.  Ellice's  Group,  399, 
400.  Appearance  and  Character  of  the  Inhabitants,  400.  Customs, 
400.  Ornaments  and  Dress,  400,  401.  Canoes,  401.  Implements  and 
Weapons,  401.  Kingsmill  Group,  401, 402.  Productions,  402.  Beauty 
of  the  Climate,  402,  403.     Animals,  Birds,  and  Fish,  403.     Population, 

403.  Personal  Appearance,  403,  404.     Beauty  of  the  Young  Women, 

404.  Hideousness  of  their  Mothers,  404.  Practice  of  Producing  Abor- 
tions, 404,  405.  Inhabitants  of  Pitt's  Island,  405.  Character  of  the 
Kingsmill  Islanders,  405.  Respect  paid  to  the  Dead,  405.  Want  of 
Chastity,  406.  Social  Divisions  and  Government,  406.  Descent  of 
Rank  and  Property,  406,  407.  Dress  and  Ornaments,  407.  Tattooing, 
407.  Fondness  for  War,  407.  Weapons  and  Armor,  407,  408.  Ordi- 
nary Occupations,  408.  Divinities,  408,  409.  Native  Elysium,  409. 
Births,  409.  Marriages,  409,  410.  Amusements,  410,  411.  Dwelling 
Houses,  411.  Furniture,  411,  412.  Manner  of  Preparing  Food,  412. 
Beverages,  412, 413.  Canoes,  413.  Tools,  413.  Supposed  Murder 
Committed  by  the  Natives,  413.  Burning  of  the  Town  of  Utiroa,  413 
414.  Sailing  of  the  American  Vessels,  414.  Arrival  at  the  Mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  414.    Loss  of  the  Peacock,  414. 


CONTENTS.  XIX 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Boundaries  of  Oregon,  415,  416.  Physical  Geography,  416.  Passes 
through  the  Mountains,  416,  417.  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  417.  Geology, 
417,418.  Population,  418.  Indian  Tribes,  418.  The  White  Inhabi- 
tants, 418.  Government,  418, 419.  Principal  Towns,  419.  Rivers,  419, 
420.  Columbia,  419,  420.  Other  Streams,  420.  Harbors,  421,  422. 
Puget's  Sound,  421.  Gray's  Harbor,  421.  Entrance  to  the  Columbia 
River,  421,  422.  Tilamuke,  Celeste,  and  Yacquina  Bays,  422.  Climate 
of  Oregon,  422, 423.  Diseases,  423.  Timber  Trees,  423,  424.  Agri- 
cultural Products,  424,  425.  Domestic  Animals,  425.  Fruits,  425. 
Game,  425.  Wild  Fowl,  426.  Discovery  of  California,  426.  Expedi- 
tions of  Cortes,  426,  427.  Subsequent  Expeditions,  427.  Pearl  Fish- 
eries, 427.  Establishment  of  the  Jesuits  in  California,  427,  428.  Col- 
onization by  the  Spaniards,  428.  Gold  known  to  Exist,  428.  Slow 
Progress  of  the  Country,  428,  429.  Boundaries,  429.  Modern  Explor- 
ations, 429,  430.  Discovery  of  Gold  in  1848,  431.  Effect  on  the 
Inhabitants,  431.  Manner  of  Working  the  Placeras,  431,  432.  Extent 
of  the  Gold  District,  432.  Purity  of  the  Metal,  432,  434.  Productive- 
ness of  the  Mines,  434.  Other  Mineral  Products,  435.  Mine  at  Mari- 
posa, 436.  Prospects  for  the  Future,  436,  437.  Yield  for  the  First 
Year,  437.  Severity  of  the  Labor,  438.  Rage  for  Speculation,  438, 
439.     Present  Population  of  the  Territory,  439.     Rapid  Immigration, 

439,  440.     State  of  Society,  440.     Adoption  of  a  State  Constitution, 

440.  Boundary  Established  by  the  Convention,  440,  441.  Physical 
Geography,  441.  Rivers,  441,  442.  Harbors  and  Towns,  442,  443. 
Climate,  443,  444.  Wild  Animals,  444.  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  444. 
Agricultural  Products,  444,  445.  Forests,  445.  Flowering  Plants 
and  Shrubs,  445,  446.  Departure  from  San  Francisco,  446.  Arrival  at 
Manilla,  446. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

City  of  Manilla,  447.  Dwelling  Houses,  447,  448.  Public  Buildings,  448. 
Cigar  Manufactories,  448.  Streets  and  Canals,  448,  449.  Suburbs, 
449.  Population,  449.  Society,  449.  Dress,  450.  Commerce  of  the 
Town,  450.  Harbor,  450.  The  Philippines,  450, 451.  Geological 
Formation,  451.  Character  of  the  Vegetation,  451.  Chief  Products, 
451,  452.  Zoology,  452.  Climate,  452.  Monsoons,  452.  Trade  and 
Manufactures,  453.  Pina,  453.  Government,  453.  Sailing  of  the 
American  Vessels,  453,  454.      Arrival  of  the  Vincennes  at  the  Sooloo 


XX  CONTENTS. 

Islands,  454.  Geography  of  the  Group,  454.  Personal  Appearance  of 
the  Inhabitants,  454.  Customs,  455.  Dress,  455.  Principal  Products, 
454,  455.  Commerce,  455.  Cowry  Shells,  455.  Treaty  with  the 
Sultan,  455.  Voyage  to  Singapore,  455.  Description  of  the  City  and 
Island,  455,  456.  Geology,  456.  Flora  and  Zoology,  456.  Inhabi- 
tants, 456,  457.  Commercial  Importance,  457.  Sailing  of  the  Ameri- 
can Squadron,  457.  Voyage  Home,  457,  458.  Cape  Town,  458.  Ar- 
rival in  the  United  States,  458. 


PART  II, 

CHAPTER   I. 

Destruction  of  the  Cities  of  the  Plain,  461,  462.  Traditions,  462.  The 
Infidel,  462,463.  Ancient  and  Modern  Writers  and  Travellers,  463. 
Scientific  Explorations,  463,  464.  Expedition  Projected  by  Lieutenant 
Lynch,  464.  Preparations,  464.  Boats  for  Navigating  the  Jordan  and 
the  Dead  Sea,  464,  465.  Departure  from  New  York,  465.  Arrival  at 
Smyrna,  465.  Appearance  of  the  City,  465, 466.  Buildings,  466.  Pop- 
ulation, 466.  Costume  and  Climate,  467.  Firman  of  the  Sultan,  467, 
468.  Voyage  to  Beirut,  468.  Description  of  the  City,  468, 469.  Costume 
of  the  Inhabitants,  469.  The  Tantur,  469,  470.  Arrival  at  St.  Jean 
d' Acre,  470.  Architecture,  471.  Landing  of  the  Exploring  Party,  471. 
Arabian  Horses,  471, 472.  Sherif  Hazza,  472.  The  Sheikh  'Akll,  472. 
The  Bedawi  of  the  Desert,  472,  473.  Description  of  his  Person  and 
Mode  of  Life,  473.  Character,  474.  Overland  March  of  the  American 
Exploring  Party,  475.  Plain  of  Acre,  475,  476.  Arabian  Escort,  476. 
Appearance  of  the  Cavalcade,  476,  477.  Villages  of  the  Felldhin,  477 
Houses,  477.  Route  taken  by  the  Party,  477,  478.  Vegetation,  478 
Arrival  at  Tiberias,  479. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Changes  on  the  Shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  480,  481.     Size  and  Ap- 
pearance of  the  Lake,  481.    Depth  of  the  Water,  481.    Its  Properties, 


CONTENTS.  XXI 

481.  Geology  of  the  Surrounding  Country,  482.    State  of  Agriculture, 

482.  Scriptural  Associations,  482, 483.  Tiberias,  483.  Condition  of  the 
Jews,  483,  484.  Sanhedrim,  484.  Contrast  between  the  Male  and 
Female  Jews  in  Personal  Appearance,  484.  Beauty  of  the  Women, 
484,  485.  Practice  of  Carrying  Water  on  their  Heads,  485.  Dress 
and  Ornaments,  486.  Source  of  the  Jordan,  486.  Course  of  the  River, 
486,  487.  Scenery  along  its  Banks,  487.  Valley  of  El-Ghor,  487.  Sin- 
uosity  of  the  Jordan,  487.  Rap|ds  and  Cascades,  488.  Tributaries,  488. 
Analysis  of  the  Water,  488.  Sacred  Character  of  the  River,  488,  489. 
Movements  of  the  American  Party,  489.  Descent  of  the  Stream,  489, 
490.  Passing  the  Rapids,  490,  491.  Character  of  the  Adjacent  Coun- 
try, 491.  Vegetation  of  the  River  Valley,  491,  492>  Animals,  492. 
Bulbul,  492.  Inhabitants  living  upon  the  Borders  oJRhe  River  and  the 
Dead  Sea,  492, 493.   The  Fellahin,  493.    Pilgrim^Ford  (El-Meshra'a), 

493.  Anniversary  of  the  Saviour's  Baptism,  493,  494.    The  Bathers, 

494,  495.  Arrival  at  the  Mouth  of  the  River,  495.  Encampment  on 
the  Shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  495. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Various  Names  given  to  the  Dead  Sea,  496.  Dep6t  of  the  American 
Party,  497.  Taking  the  Soundings,  497.  Existence  of  a  Ford  dis- 
proved, 497.  Surveys  and  Explorations,  497, 498.  Pillar  of  Salt,  498. 
Difficulty  in  making  the  Surveys,  499.  Return  to  Aln  Turabeh,  499. 
Dimensions  of  the  Lake,  499,  500.  Depth  of  the  Water,  500.  Sup- 
posed Subterranean  Communication  not  possible,  500.  Chemical  An- 
alysis, 500, 501.  Density  and  Buoyancy  of  the  Water,  501.  Other  Prop- 
erties, 501,  502.  Evaporation,  502,  503.  Its  Rapidity  and  Cause,  503. 
<  Impregnated  State  of  the  Atmosphere,  503,  504.  Overhanging  Clouds 
*>f  Vapor,  504.  Popular  Superstition,  504.  Physical  Geography,  505. 
K  *>e  of  the  Sea,  505.  The  Peninsula,  505.  The  Mountains,  505, 
*  .  Geology,  506.  Shore  Outline,  506.  Character  of  the  Bottom, 
60t>,  -  Mineral  Substances  found,  507.  Tributaries,  507.  Remarks 
ofCh.4t&.  nand,  508.  Fish,  508.  Animals,  508.  Birds,  508.  Veg- 
etable .Kingv  \  508,  509.  The  Apple  of  Sodom,  508.  The  Plains 
and  Deltas,  50  Supposed  Position  of  the  Five  Cities,  509.  Different 
Opinions^  6019,  510.  Ruins  alleged  to  have  been  seen,  510.  Concur- 
rence of  Histoijv  and  Tradition  in  regard  to  the  Main  Fact,  510.  Mod- 
ern Theory,  510.  Examinations  of  Robinson  and  De  Bertou,  b)»f 
Opinions  of  Rev.  Mr.  tWylie,  511-513.    An  Error  Corrected,  513,  514. 


XXU  CONTENTS. 

Facta  ascertained  by  Lieutenant  Lynch,  5l4,  515.  Inferences  and  Con- 
clusions, 515.  Position  of  the  Vale  of  Siddim,  515.  The  Argument 
based  on  Scripture,  515,  616.  Manner  in  which  the  Cities  were  De- 
stroyed, 516.  Most  Reasonable  Supposition,  516.  Return  of  the  Ex- 
ploring Party,  517. 


V 


y+ 


PART  I. 


EXPEDITIONS  II  THE  PACIFIC 


AND   THE   SOUTH   SEAS. 


EXPLOKING   EXPEDITIONS 

IN   THE    SOUTH  SE  AS.'*  [  "'  ],['[ ,' 
CHAPTER   I. 

(I.)  Maritime  Discovery  and  Adventure. — (2.)  Act  of  Congress.  Organization 
and  departure  of  the  Exploring  Expedition. — (3.)  Instructions. — (4.)  The 
Gulf  Stream. — (5.)  Incidents  of  the  Voyage.  The  Western  Islands. — (6.)  Isl- 
and of  Madeira.  Population  and  Products.  Wine-Making. — (7.)  Cape  de 
Verdes.    Porto  Praya. — (8.)  Passage  to  Rio  Janeiro. 

(1.)  "When  the  Genoese  navigator  and  philosopher  sailed 
with  his  little  fleet,  from  the  harbor  of  Palos, — on  the  3d  of 
August,  1492, — and  directed  his  course  over  the  fathomless 
waste  of  waters  outside  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  in  search  of 
the  bright  realms  of  Zipango  and  Cathay,  he  marked  a  new 
era  in  maritime  discovery  and  adventure.  The  voyages  of 
the  Phoenicians,  like  those  of  the  Scandinavian  navigators  at 
a  later  day,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  productive  of  much 
benefit  to  the  world  at  large  ;  or  to  have  stimulated  any  ex- 
traordinary spirit  of  enterprise,  unless  among  those  immedi- 
ately interested  in  their  results, — but  the  discoveries  of 
Christopher  Columbus  aroused  the  whole  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  adventurers  pushed  out  from  every  port  and  haven, 
in  quest  of  the  fair  land  of  promise  beyond  the  dark  bosom 
of  the  Atlantic. 

Expeditions  were  fitted  out  in  England,  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal, — all  having  the  same  object,  and  prompted  by 
the  same  motives.  A  new  world  was  found  in  the  far-off 
West,  presenting  a 

"  Sweet  interchange 
Of  hill  and  valley,  rivers,  woods,  and  plains ;" 


26  ACT    OF    CONGRESS.  ["1836 

and  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  in  majestic  forests,  and  a  virgin 
soil.  It  was  a  happy  thought,  that,  when  this  country — 
thus,  as  it  were,  called  into  existence — had  become  peopled, 
and  advanced  to  greatness  and  distinction,  she  should  repay 
the  debt  of  gratitude  which  she  owed,  by  her  discoveries  in 
the-  skin*  field  in  which  the  enlightened  nations  of  the  old 
world  have  bein  constantly  employed  for  more  than  three 
hundred  years.  The  Coast  Survey  of  the  United  States — 
first  proposed  in  1806,  by  the  late  Professor  Patterson,  and 
warmly  favored,  at  that  time,  by  Albert  Gallatin,  and  other 
scientific  and  learned  men,  but  not  commenced  until  the  year 
1832 — is  a  great  work,  and  one  from  which  other  countries, 
as  well  as  our  own,  will  unquestionably  derive  the  most  im- 
portant benefits.  The  comparatively  limited  information 
possessed  in  regard  to  the  great  Southern  Ocean,  in  which 
such  a  vast  amount  of  the  capital  of  our  countrymen  was 
employed,  in  whaling  and  other  commercial  enterprises,  next 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  American  Congress. 

(2.)  On  the  18th  of  May,  1836,  an  act  was  passed  au- 
thorizing an  Expedition  to  be  fitted  out — the  first,  of  a  similar 
character,  undertaken  by  the  national  government — for  the 
purpose  of  exploring  and  surveying  the  Southern  Ocean,  "  as 
well  to  determine  the  existence  of  all  doubtful  islands  and 
shoals,  as  to  discover,  and  accurately  fix,  the  position  of 
those  which  [lay]  in  or  near  the  track  of  our  vessels  in  that 
quarter,  and  [might]  have  escaped  the  observation  of  scientific 
navigators."*  Liberal  appropriations  were  made  for  accom- 
plishing the  objects  of  the  Expedition,  and  it  was  at  first  or- 
ganized under  Commodore  Thomas  Ap  Catesby  Jones,  of  the 
United  States  Navy  :  he  subsequently  resigned  the  station, 
and  was  succeeded,  in  turn,  by  several  different  officers,  until, 
finally,  on  the  20th  of  March,  1838,  Lieutenant  Charles 
Wilkes  assumed  the  command. 

The  novelty  of  the  undertaking  occasioned  numerous  delays 
and  hindrances ;  but,  early  in  the  month  of  August,  1838, 

*  Three  other  Exploring  Expeditions  were  undertaken  in  the  South  Seas,  at 
the  same  time ;  two  English,  and  one  French. 


1838.]  DEPARTURE    OF   THE    EXPEDITION.  27 

the  expedition  was  ready  to  sail, — though,  as  it  afterwards 
appeared,  some  of  the  vessels  were  not  in  as  good  condition 
as  they  should  have  been.  The  squadron  consisted  of  the 
sloop  of  war  Vincennes,  the  flag-ship  of  the  commander  of  the 
expedition  ;  the  sloop  of  war  Peacock,  Lieutenant  William 
L.  Hudson ;  the  brig  Porpoise,  Lieutenant  Cadwalader  Ring- 
gold ;  the  store-ship  Relief,  Lieutenant  A.  K.  Long ;  and 
the  tenders  Sea-Gull  and  Flying-Fish.  As  it  was  deemed 
important  to  divest  the  expedition  of  all  military  character, 
the  armament  provided  for  it  was  adapted  merely  for  defence 
against  the  savage  and  warlike  inhabitants  of  the  South  Sea 
islands.  The  boats  of  the  vessels  were  all  clinker-built,  with 
the  exception  of  the  launches,  like  those  used  by  whalers  and 
sealers. 

A  full  corps  of  scientific  gentlemen,  consisting  of  philol- 
ogists, naturalists,  conchologists,  mineralogists,  botanists, 
horticulturists,  taxidermists,  and  draughtsmen — all  employed 
by  the  government — accompanied  the  Expedition.  An  ample 
supply  of  books,  and  a  complete  set  of  charts  and  instruments, 
of  the  most  approved  character  and  workmanship,  were  also 
furnished ;  and  several  able  reports  of  philosophical  and  other 
societies,  together  with  a  memorandum  transmitted  to  the 
Navy  Department  by  Vice- Admiral  Krusenstern,  of  the  Rus- 
sian Navy,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Lieutenant  Wilkes. 

All  things  being  in  readiness,  on  the  9th  of  August,  the 
squadron,  which  had  been  fitted  out  at  Norfolk,  dropped  down 
to  Hampton  Roads  and  anchored.  On  the  12th  instant,  they 
were  joined  by  the  tenders,  and  on  the  17th  Lieutenant 
Wilkes  received  his  final  instructions  from  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. Signal  was  at  once  made  that  the  squadron  was 
under  sailing  orders.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  following  day,  the  vessels  weighed  anchor ;  but  as  the 
breeze  soon  fell  away,  they  anchored  again  at  the  Horse- 
shoe. In  a  couple  of  hours  the  wind  freshened,  and  the 
whole  squadron  stood  down  the  bay  in  company.  During 
the  night  the  breeze  slackened  once  more,  and  they  made 
very  little  progress.     Early  in  the  morning  of  the  19th,  how- 


28  INSTRUCTIONS.  [1838. 

ever,  they  passed  Cape  Henry  Light,  and  at  nine  o'clock  hove 
to,  and  discharged  their  pilots.  The  ships  then  stood  out  to 
sea  together.  This  being  Sunday,  all  hands  were  called  to 
muster  at  eleven  o'clock,  and  an  impressive  sermon  was  de- 
livered on  board  the  Vincennes,  by  the  Chaplain,  Mr.  Elliot. 
He  alluded,  in  eloquent  terms,  to  the  arduous  nature  of  the 
enterprise  in  which  they  had  embarked,  and  the  probably  dis- 
tant period  when  they  would  be  permitted  to  return  to  the 
bright  shores  then  rapidly  sinking  below  the  western  horizon ; 
and  appropriately  cautioned  his  hearers,  through  weal  and 
woe,  to  put  their  trust  in  Him  who  holds  the  tempest  in  the 
hollow  of  his  hand. 

(3.)  The  instructions  issued  to  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  re- 
quired him,  in  the  first  place,  to  shape  his  course  to  Rio 
Janeiro,  crossing  the  line  between  longitude  18°  and  22° 
West,  and  keeping  within  those  meridians  to  about  latitude 
10°  South,  in  order  to  determine  the  existence  of  certain 
vigias,  or  shoals,  laid  down  in  the  charts  as  doubtful.  Hav- 
ing replenished  his  supplies  at  Rio, — the  longitude  of  which, 
as  well  as  of  Cape  Frio,  was  to  be  determined, — he  was  di- 
rected to  make  a  particular  examination  of  the  Rio  Negro, 
which  falls  into  the  South  Atlantic ;  and  then  to  proceed  to 
a  safe  port,  or  ports,  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  where  the  larger 
vessels  were  to  be  securely  moored,  while  he  explored  the 
South  Antartic,  to  the  southward  of  Powell's  Group,  and  be- 
tween it  and  Sandwich  Land,  with  the  brig  Porpoise  and  the 
tenders.  In  the  meantime,  the  officers  left  at  Tierra  del  Fuego 
were  to  make  accurate  examinations  and  surveys  of  the  bays, 
ports,  inlets,  and  sounds,  in  that  region. 

On  rejoining  the  vessels  at  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Lieutenant 
Wilkes  was  ordered  to  stretch  towards  the  southward  and 
westward,"  with  the  whole  squadron,  as  far  as  the  Ne  Plus 
Ultra  of  Cook,  or  longitude  105°  West,  and  to  return  north- 
ward to  Valparaiso,  where  a  storfe-ship  would  join  them,  in 
March,  1839.  From  that  port,  he  was  to  direct  his  course 
to  the  Navigator's  Group, — so  disposing  his  vessels,  in  the 
latitudes  where  discoveries  might  be  reasonably  anticipated, 


1838.]  ADDITIONAL    ORDERS.  29 

as  that  they  should  sweep  the  broadest  expanse  of  ocean 
practicable, — and  thence  to  the  Feejee  Islands,  where  he  was 
to  select  a  safe  harbor  for  whalers  and  public  vessels  of  the 
United  States,  and  make  such  arrangements  as  would  insure 
their  being  furnished  with  supplies. 

From  the  Feejee  Islands,  he  was  to  proceed  to  the  port  of 
Sydney,  and  then  make  a  second  attempt  to  penetrate  within 
the  Antartic  region,  south  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  as  far 
west  as  longitude  45°  East,  or  to  Enderby's  Land.  The 
squadron  was  then  to  rendezvous  at  Kerguelen's  Land,  usually 
called  the  Isle  of  Desolation,  and  proceed  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  where  a  store-ship  from  the  United  States  would 
meet  them,  in  April,  1840.  Thence  they  were  to  sail  to  the 
Northwest  Coast  of  America,  and  make  surveys  and  exami- 
nations of  the  coast  of  Oregon  and  California.  From  this 
coast,  they  were  to  repair  to  that  of  Japan, — taking  as  many 
doubtful  islands  as  possible  on  their  route, — and  make  a  par- 
ticular examination  p^  the  Sea  of  Japan,  and  the  Sea  of 
Sooloo,  or  Mindoro.  Having  completed  this  examination, 
Lieutenant  Wilkes  was  instructed  to  ascertain  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  of  that  archipelago  for 
commerce,  their  productions  and  resources;  after  which  he 
was  to  proceed  to  the  Straits  of  Sunda, — pass  through  the 
Straits  of  Billiton, — touch  at  Singapore,  where  he  would 
meet  a  store-ship, — and  then  return  home  by  the  way  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

In  addition  to  the  orders  necessarily  suggested  by  the  fore- 
going instructions,  Lieutenant  Wilkes  directed  every  officer 
of  the  Expedition  to  keep  a  journal,  in  which  everything  that 
occurred  during  the  voyage  was  to  be  carefully  noted.  These 
journals  were  to  be  weekly  submitted  to  him  for  inspection, 
and,  on  the  return  of  the  Expedition,  to  be  disposed  of  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  The 
scientific  gentlemen  were  admonished  to  lose  no  opportunity 
to  procure  information  in  their  several  departments.  Meteo- 
rological observations  were  required  to  be  taken  four  times 
daily  ;  and  particular  instructions  were  given  to  measure  and 


30  THE    GULP    STREAM.  [1838 

observe,  all  astronomical  and  atmospherical  phenomena,  and 
every  unusual  appearance  connected  with  the  weather,  such 
as  shooting  stars,  zodiacal  lights,  aurora  borealis,  rainbows, 
halos,  water-spouts,  the  Magellanic  clouds,*  lightning,  and  rain. 

After  several  days'  trial,  the  store-ship  Relief  was  found  to 
be  so  dull  a  sailer — the  other  vessels  being  frequently  required 
to  lie  to  for  her — that  Lieutenant  Wilkes  determined  to  part 
company.  Lieutenant  Long  was  therefore  ordered  to  pro- 
ceed, with  all  practicable  dispatch,  to  Porto  Praya,  in  the 
island  of  St.  Jago,  and  thence  to  Rio  Janeiro.  In  case  of 
separation,  the  remaining  vessels  of  the  squadron  were  di- 
rected to  rendezvous  at  Madeira. 

(4.)  Immediately  after  leaving  the  Capes  of  Virginia,  the 
influence  of  the  cold  polar,  or  counter-current,  flowing  paral- 
lel to  the  coast,  close  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
from  Davis'  Straits  as  far  south  as  Cape  Hatteras,  was  sen- 
sibly felt.t  In  crossing  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  squadron  were 
highly  favored.  They  had  light  winds,  and  their  progress 
was  so  slow,  that  they  were  forty-eight  hours  in  passing  it, 
although  they  were  most  of  the  time  sailing  at  right  angles  to 
its  direction.  When  they  entered  the  stream,  a  sudden  rise 
of  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  indicated  by  the  ther- 
mometer, which  went  up  from  77°  to  83°  in  a  few  hours,  but 
soon  fell  again  to  a  mean  temperature  of  about  80°, — thus 
showing  that  the  stream  is  considerably  warmer  towards  the 
inner  edge  than  on  the  outer.  Its  breadth,  where  the 
squadron  crossed  it,  on  the  parallel  of  34°  30',  was  ascer- 
tained to  be  fifty-three  miles,  and  its  velocity  two  miles  per 
hour.  These  data  are  not  very  reliable,  however,  as  it  is  now 
well  settled,  that  both  the  breadth  and  velocity  fluctuate  very 

materially.t 

*  The  Magellanic  clouds  are  three  conspicuous  nebulae,  bearing  the  appearance 
of  thin  white  clouds,  situated  near  the  south  pole.  They  derive  their  name  from 
Magellan,  the  distinguished  Portuguese  navigator. 

f  This  current  is  sometimes  called  the  eddy  of  the  Gulf  Stream ;  but  the  great 
difference  in  the  temperature  shows  conclusively  that  the  idea  is  erroneous. 

$  The  observations  of  the  officers  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  while  in  the 
Gulf  Stream,  were,  necessarily,  very  limited ;  consequently,  they  do  not  appear 


1838.]  ISLAND    OF    MADEIRA.  31 

(5.)  On  the  25th  of  August,  the  squadron  laid  its  course 
towards  the  island  of  Madeira.  The  winds  had  been  light 
and  the  sea  smooth,  but  on  the  night  of  the  26th  there  came 
up  a  squall,  during  which  the  Peacock  and  the  Flying-Fish 
parted  company  with  the  other  vessels. 

The  first  days  in  September  were  clear,  bright,  and  beau- 
tiful ;  immense  shoals  of  flying  fish  disported  about  the  prows 
of  the  ships,  or  darted  through  the  air  to  escape  from  their 
voracious  pursuers ;  and  beautiful  dolphins,  and  "  deep-sea" 
sharks,  were  seen  in  every  direction.  In  the  morning  of  the 
6th,  they  encountered  a  huge  cotton-wood  tree,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  length,  and  fourteen  feet  in  circumference  ; 
all  covered  over  with  barnacles,  and  much  eaten  by  the  tere- 
dine,  or  sea  borer ;  and  probably  thousands  on  thousands 
of  miles  from  the  place  where  it  grew — on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  9th  instant,  they  passed 
in  sight  of  the  Peak  of  Pico,  one  of  the  Azores,  or  Western 
Islands,  and  on  the  following  day  made  the  northern  coast  of 
St.  Michael's,  belonging  to  the  same  group,  a  high  and  moun- 
tainous island,  but  exceedingly  fertile,  and  dotted  with  groves 
and  villas,  and  rich  cultivated  fields,  which  could  just  be  dis- 
cerned with  the  glass. 

(6.)  At  daylight  on  the  16th  of  September,  the  tall  cliffs, 
and  jagged  precipices,  of  the  island  of  Madeira,  were  dis- 
covered looming  up  above  the  wide  expanse  of  waters  at  the 
south.  The  first  sight  of  the  island  does  not  produce  a  favor- 
able impression,  but  a  nearer  view  discloses  scenery  remark- 
ably picturesque,  and,  indeed,  beautiful.  Bold,  embattled 
cliffs,  rising  to  the  height  of  sixteen  hundred  feet,  the  abodes 
of  the  ospray  and  sea-gull,  and  beneath  which  is  heard  the 

to  have  remarked  the  singular  fact  disclosed  hy  the  examinations  of  Lieutenant 
Bache, — who  was  unfortunately  wrecked  off  Cape  Hatteras,  while  engaged  in 
the  Coast  Survey,  on  the  8th  of  September,  1846, — that  the  whole  current  of 
warm  water,  to  the  depth  of  at  least  four  hundred  and  eighty  fathoms,  divides 
itself  into  two  principal  branches,  separated  by  a  portion  of  cold  water.  The 
transition  from  the  cold  to  the  warm  water,  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  stream,  ig 
said  to  be  almost  as  instantaneous,  as  if  the  two  were  separated  by  a  wall,  nearly 
cerpendicular,  except  that  it  inclines  slightly  to  the  east  at  the  top. 


m 


32  FERTILITY.  [1838. 

ceaseless  roar  of  the  ocean  surf,  stand  like  giant  warders,  on 
every  hand.  The  shores  are  indented  by  a  few  small  bays, 
receiving  the  waters  of  the  mountain  streamlets,  at  the  upper 
extremities  of  which  are  the  little  villages  whose  white  walls 
glisten  like  enamel  in  the  beams  of  the  morning  sun. 

Throughout  its  whole  extent,  the  island  is  mountainous, 
and  the  western  half  is  divided  by  a  central  ridge,  five  thou- 
sand feet  high,  upon  which  is  spread  out  the  vaSt  plain  of 
Paul  de  Serra,  mostly  overgrown,  and  used  for  breeding 
horses  and  mules.  Deep  gorges,  with  steep  precipitous  sides, 
everywhere  intersect  the  elevated  ground.  The  intervals, 
and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  are  highly  productive,  and 
even  the  mountain  tops  are  clothed  with  rich  verdure,  or 
groves  of  heath  and  broom, — not  the  stunted  varieties  of 
northern  climes,  but  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the  tropics. 
From  the  rugged  character  of  the  scenery,  it  might  be  sup- 
posed that  but  a  small  portion  of  the  island  could  be  cultiva- 
ted ;  yet,  what  nature  has  done  amiss,  or  left  unfinished,  man 
has  attempted  to  remedy  and  complete.  Terraces,  supported 
by  stone  walls,  girt  the  acclivities,  even  to  their  summits ; 
and  green  patches  start  out,  like  emeralds,  in  bold  relief,  from 
the  dark  red  soil  that  surrounds  them.  Within  the  narrow 
compass  of  this  delightful  spot,  the  productions  of  the  torrid 
and  temperate  zones  are  brought  together  :  on  the  lower  ter- 
races, oranges,  citrons,  and  lemons,  may  be  found ;  higher 
up,  are  bananas,  figs,  and  pomegranates ;  still  higher,  apples, 
currants,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  melons,  tomatoes  and  egg- 
plants, greet  the  sight ;  and  above  all  these  grows  the  potato, 
solitary  and  alone. 

Before  sunset  on  the  16th,  the  Vincennes,  Porpoise,  and 
Sea-Gull,  cast  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Funchal,  on  the  south- 
ern side  of  Madeira,  the  capital  of  the  island.  The  Peacock 
and  Flying-Fish  joined  them  on  the  following  day, — when  a 
party  of  officers  was  made  up  to  go  ashore,  and  pay  their  re- 
spects to  the  civil  governor,  Baron  de  Lordello,  and  the  mili- 
tary commandant,  Senor  Rebello,  who  received  them  very 
courteously     During  the  stay  of  the  squadron,  every  point 


1838.J  FUNCHAL.  33 

of  particular  attraction  was  visited  by  one  or  more  parties ; 
the  inhabitants  usually  receiving  them  with  the  utmost  kind- 
ness and  cordiality. 

The  Madeira  Islands  belong  to  Portugal,  and  consist  of 
Madeira  proper,  Porto  Santo,  and  the  Desert  Isles.  The 
first  two,  the  only  ones  inhabited,  are  included  in  one  district, 
and  contain  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  inhabi- 
tants, of  all  sexes  and  classes.  The  people  are  very  loyal  to 
their  present  sovereign,  Donna  Maria ;  their  taxes  are  not 
very  heavy ;  and  though  beggars  are  somewhat  numerous 
among  them,  they  may  be  generally  regarded  as  exceedingly 
industrious.  They  are  gay  and  cheerful  in  their  dispositions, 
and,  with  rare  exceptions,  hospitable  and  generous. 

Funchal,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Madeira,  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  southern  shore,  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre 
of  lofty  hills,  terminating,  on  one  side,  in  Loo  Rock,  a  bold 
quadrangular  precipice,  with  a  fortification  on  the  summit, 
which  overlooks  the  harbor  in  front  of  the  town.  It  contains 
some  eight  or  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  most  of  whom  reside 
in  neat  whitewashed  cottages  one  story  in  height,  though  there 
are  many  more  imposing  structures,  provided  with  verandahs, 
or  light  airy  colonnades.  The  streets  are  narrow,  but  well- 
paved,  and  present  quite  a  cleanly  appearance.  There  are  a 
number  of  churches  and  convents,  which  are  always  lighted 
in  the  early  part  of  the  evening.  The  prisons  are  well-filled, 
and  extremely  filthy.  This  may  be  attributed,  however,  to 
defective  laws,  as  every  offender  is  required  to  be  sent  to  Por- 
tugal for  trial,  and  sometimes  years  elapse  before  he  leaves 
the  island. 

In  addition  to  Funchal,  there  are  several  other  pretty  towns, 
among  which  are  Santa  Cruz,  Porto  Delgada,  and  San  Vin- 
cente,  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  and  Canical  and  Co- 
mancha,  on  the  east  side.  The  principal  objects  of  interest 
to  the  tourist,  are,  the  Curral, — a  circular  gorge,  as  the  name 
implies,  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains, — the  winding  pass  at 
Estroza,  and  the  Convent  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Mountain,  the 
highest  building  on  the  island. 

2* 


34  APPEARANCE    OF    THE    INTERIOR.  [1838. 

There  are,  also,  many  fine  rides  in  the  interior.  After  as- 
cending the  heights  in  rear  of  Funchal,  you  may  travel  miles 
on  miles,  over  hard  and  well-conditioned  roads,  or  bridle-paths, 
Dordered  with  hedges  of  roses  and  myrtles ;  with  trellises  sup- 
porting an  infinite  variety  of  gaudy  colored  creepers,  or  aro- 
matic shrubs  that  load  the  air  with  perfume ;  or  with  stone 
walls,  literally  buried  beneath  the  long  trailing  vines  loaded 
down  with  their  rich  clusters  of  grapes.  Gardens  stocked 
with  fruit  trees,  extensive  vineyards,  and  fields  of  wheat,  bar- 
ley, rye,  and  maize,  arrest  the  attention  on  every  hand.  Neat 
cottages  are  discovered  imbosomed  amid  thickets  of  tropical 
plants ;  and  the  humbler  habitations  of  the  peasantry,  with 
their  low  walls  formed  of  huge  blocks  of  lava,  and  their  tall 
thatches  of  broom,  are  constantly  peeping  out  from  the  lux- 
uriant foliage  which  surrounds  them.  Through  the  gorges 
of  the  mountains,  glimpses  open  of  almost  fathomless  depths, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  are  labyrinths  of  sweet-scented  shrub- 
beries, miniature  forests  -  of  dahlias,  fuchsias,  hydrangeas, 
geraniums,  variegated  convolvuli,  and  Ethiopian  lilies.  The 
spreading  plane  tree,  the  majestic  palm,  the  dark  and  glossy- 
leaved  banana,  and  the  Madeira  walnut,*  enlivened,  now  and 
then,  by  the  white  tufts  of  the  cotton-wood,  abound  on  the 
lower  terraces;  and  the  beetling  cliffs  above  are  crowned 
with  mountain  heath  and  laurel,  with  towering  cedars,  oaks, 
and  elms.  Over  all  this  bright  and  glorious  scenery,  rests  an 
atmosphere  remarkably  soft,  pure,  and  transparent. 

Travelling  is  usually  performed  on  tne  Madeira  ponies, — a 
tough  and  hardy  race  of  animals,  like  the  Shetland  breed, — 
or  in  sedans.  The  latter  are  generally  preferred  by  the  ladies. 
The  hauling  of  heavy  articles  is  principally  done  by  the  small 
oxen  of  the  island,  on  sledges  resembling  the  stone  boats  in 
use  among  Ameriqan  farmers.  These  are  employed  alto- 
gether in  the  seaport  towns,  for  conveying  pipes  of  wine ;  but 
the  liquor  is  brought  from  the  interior,  in  sheep-skins,  sowed 
together  so  as  nearly  to  preserve  the  form  of  the  animal, 
which  are  slung  over  the  backs  of  the  peasants. 

*  The  Madeira  nut  is  the  product  of  this  tree. 


1838.]  WINE    MAKING.  35 

The  inhabitants  of  Madeira  are  of  Moorish  origin,  though 
free  negroes,  and  descendants  of  the  European  race,  are  fre- 
quently to  be  met  with.  The  men  are  tall,  muscular,  and 
well-built.  The  women,  particularly  among  the  peasantry, 
are  masculine  and  vigorous,  and  rarely  exhibit  any  traces  of 
beauty :  as  they  share  the  labors  of  their  husbands,  the  soft- 
ness natural  to  the  sex  is  very  soon  destroyed.  All  are  tough 
and  hearty,  and  capable  of  enduring  great  and  long-continued 
fatigue.  Among  the  higher  classes,  the  fashions  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  are  imitated  or  copied  ;  and  rustling  silks  and 
gay  velvets  are  often  seen  in  the  streets.  The  dress  of  the 
peasant  is  far  less  expensive,  yet  quite  picturesque  :  the  men 
wear  trowsers  descending  as  low  as  the  knee,  and  shirts  and 
jackets  of  the  brightest  colors ;  and  the  women,  bodices  laced 
with  pretty  ribbons,  and  short  gayly-striped  petticoats.  A 
conical  cap,  common  to  both  sexes,  completes  the  costume. 

The  difference  between  the  imports  and  exports  of  Madeira, 
indicates  a  high  state  of  prosperity.  The  former  barely  ex- 
ceed one  hundred  thousand  dollars  annually,  principally  con- 
sisting of  staves,  rice,  and  oil ;  while  more  than  eight  thou- 
sand pipes  of  wine,  valued  at  over  one  and  a  half  million  of 
dollars,  are  exported  during  the  same  period.  Most  of  the 
cereal  grains,  sugar,  coffee,  and  taro,  are  produced  in  abun- 
dance. Large  quantities  of  fine  beef,  vegetables,  and  fruit, 
are  furnished,  also,  to  the  vessels  that  stop  at  the  island. 
But  the  great  staple  is  the  far-famed  Madeira  wine,  the  best  jj 
qualities  of  which,  me  connoisseur  need  not  be  told,  come 
from  the  "  south-side."  Great  care  is  taken  to  maintain  the 
reputation  of  the  wine,  and  the  laws  are  so  strict,  that  even 
the  genuine  article,  once  shipped,  cannot  be  introduced  into 
the  island. 

The  method  of  manufacturing  the  wine  is  certainly  very 
primitive,  and  differs  but  little  from  that  in  vogue  among  the 
nations  of  the  East  in  olden  times.  The  grapes  are  deposited 
in  an  elevated  vat,  usually  about  six  feet  square  and  two  feet 
deep,  under  an  open  shed  covered  with  a  thatch  roof.  Some 
half  a  dozen  bare-legged  and  bare-footed  peasants,  then  spring 


36  SAILING    OF    THE    SQ.UADRON.  [1838 

into  the  vat,  and  commence  stamping  furiously,  accompany- 
ing their  motions  with  a  rude  song.  After  this  process  has 
been  continued  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  the  legs  of  the 
men  are  scraped,  and  the  pomace  set  up  in  the  shape  of  a 
cone,  and  bound  about  with  the  young  cuttings  of  the  vine. 
A  lever,  to  which  a  large  stone,  or  rock,  is  attached  by  a 
screw,  is  now  applied,  and  the  juice  expressed  into  tubs, — 
one  gallon  being  generally  obtained  from  two  bushels  of  grapes. 
The  must  is  drawn  off  into  casks,  in  which  it  ferments  ;  it  is 
then  clarified  with  gypsum  or  isinglass,  and  the  necessary 
spirit  imparted  to  it  by  the  addition  of  two  or  three  gallons 
of  brandy  to  a  pipe. 

(7.)  Having  completed  their  repairs,  the  Exploring  Squad- 
ron weighed  anchor  in  the  afternoon  of  the  25th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  sailed  from  the  harbor  of  Funchal,  in  the  direction 
of  the  Cape  de  Verdes.  Delightful  weather,  and  cool  breezy 
winds,  attended  them  during  the  whole  time  they  were  at 
sea.  Passing  Bonavista,  one  of  the  Cape  de  Verdes,  to  which 
the  sailors  have  given  the  sobriquet  of  "  Bonny- wiskers," 
without  stopping,  they  came  in  sight  of  the  island  of  Mayo, 
belonging  to  the  same  group,  which  loomed  darkly  in  the  dis- 
tance, at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  6th  of  October, 
and  shortly  before  midnight  lay  to  off  St.  Jago,  the  principal 
island.  On  the  night  of  the  6th,  a  most  brilliant  display  of 
the  radiate  animalculae,  known  as  Medusa,  or  sea-nettles,  was 
witnessed.  The  vast  expanse  of  waters  seemed  paved  with 
innumerable  diamonds  that  out-sparkled  the  stars  which 
glimmered  above  them,  and  wavy  floods  of  phosphorescent 
light  dashed  against  the  vessels,  or  rolled  slowly  in  towards 
the  shore.  Long  trains  of  glittering  light  marked  the  courses 
of  the  fish ;  and  the  motion  of  a  rudder,  or  the  disturbance 
occasioned  in  the  water  by  anything  thrown  overboard,  pro- 
duced beautiful  flashing  coruscations.  A  number  of  exper- 
iments were  made,  from  which  it  was  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained that  the  animalcules  did  not  extend  below  eighteen 
fathoms'  water. 

[n  the  morning  of  the  7th  of  October,  the  fleet  turned  the 


1838.]        0  THE    CAPE    DE    VERDES.  37 

tall  bluff  upon  which  stands  the  flag-staff  and  a  ruined  forti- 
fication, on  the  right  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  and  came 
to  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Porto  Praya. 

The  Cape  de  Verdes  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese, 
in  1460,  and  are  still  subject  to  the  crown  of  Portugal.  The 
islands  are  about  twenty  in  number,  and  contain  seventy-five 
thousand  inhabitants,  thirty  thousand  of  whom  reside  in  St. 
Jago.  The  population  is  principally  composed  of  mulattoes 
and  blacks, — there  being  but  few  native  Portuguese.  Some 
of  the  blacks  adhere  to  their  vernacular  tongue  ;  but  the 
common  medium  of  conversation  is  a  horrid  jargon  com- 
pounded of  the  Negro  and  Portuguese  dialects.  Near  the 
sea,  the  islands  are  low,  sandy,  and  barren ;  but  further  in- 
land, there  are  lofty  hills  and  mountains,  which  afford  pas- 
turage for  numerous  herds  of  cattle  and  goats.  On  the  coast, 
the  water  is  brackish ;  but  it  is  brought  from  the  interior — 
except  in  St.  Jago— of  good  quality,  in  goatskins,  on  the  backs 
of  asses.  The  islands  are  only  tolerably  fertile,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  frequent  droughts,  probably  occasioned  by  the  preva- 
lence of  the  dry  hot  winds  blowing  from  the  Sahara,  or  Great 
Desert  of  Africa.  In  1832,  the  inhabitants  suffered  severely 
from  a  visitation  of  this  character.  Their  cattle  were  starved, 
and  they  would  themselves  have  perished,  had  it  not  been  for 
the  contributions  made  for  their  relief  in  other  countries,  par- 
ticularly in  the  United  States.  The  generous  conduct  of  the 
citizens  of  the  latter  government  is  still  remembered  among 
them  with  the  liveliest  emotions  of  gratitude.  The  climate 
is  said  to  be  healthy,  though  very  warm.  The  rainy  season 
continues  only  three  months  ;  it  commences  about  the  middle 
of  July,  and  terminates  about  the  middle  of  October,  when 
everything  assumes  a  livelier,  fresher,  and  more  verdant  ap- 
pearance. 

The  productions  of  this  group  of  islands  are  not  numerous, 
and  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  on  the  vessels  stopping 
there  for  many  articles  of  comfort  and  convenience,  for  which 
they  exchange  their  own  products.  Beef,  poultry,  eggs,  fresh 
fish,  cabbages,  beans,  pumpkins,  squashes,  corn,  sweet  pota- 


38  PRODUCTIONS.  [1838. 

toes,  yams,  bananas,  dates,  tamarinds,  limes,  oranges,  and  the 
fruit  of  the  cocoanut  tree,  are  usually  quite  plenty.  Sugar 
and  coffee  are  also  raised  in  small  quantities,  and  an  inferior 
quality  of  wine,  but  a  small  portion  of  which  is  exported,  is 
likewise  produced.  A  palatable  article  of  cheese  is  made 
from  goats'  milk.  The  flour  used  is  "imported,  principally 
from  the  United  States ;  but  a  very  good  kind  of  bread  is 
prepared  from  the  roots  of  the  manihot,  or  cassada  plant, 
which  are  also  roasted  and  eaten  like  potatoes.*  The  fecula, 
or  starch,  obtained  by  scraping  and  washing  the  roots,  is 
called  tapioca. 

Coarse  salt,  hides,  goatskins,  wine,  and  archil,  are  the 
main  exports.  The  salt  plantations,  as  they  are  called,  are 
situated  on  the  level,  alluvial  ground,  near  the  coast.  The 
land  appropriated  to  the  purpose  is  plotted  into  vats,  by  banks 
of  clay,  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  which  become  baked  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  salt  water  is  then  pumped  into  the 
vats  from  wells,  and  exposed  to  evaporation.  It  is  not  an 
unusual  sight  to  see  a  whole  family,  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, engaged  in  the  "  plantation."  Considerable  attention 
is  paid  to  neatness,  and  the  walks  between  the  vats  are  kept 
scrupulously  clean.  Archil  is  a  lichen,  which  grows  on  the 
rocks,  and  is  found  both  in  the  Canary  and  Cape  de  Verde 
Islands.  It  yields  a  rich  purple  color,  which  is  exceedingly 
beautiful,  but  not  durable.  The  blue  pigment,  litmus,  is 
prepared  from  it.  At  the  Cape  de  Verdes,  archil  is  a  govern- 
ment monopoly ;  ninety  thousand  millreas, — equal  to  fifty- 
six  thousand,  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  American  cur- 
rency,— being  paid  by  a  company,  for  the  annual  crop. 

The  houses  of  the  Cape  de  Verdians  are  miserable  huts, 
built  of  stone,  not  six  feet  high,  and  thatched  with  salt  hay, 
or  palm  leaves.  Some  are  circular,  some  square,  and  others 
oblong.  Occasionally  one  may  be  seen  with  a  shingled  roof. 
As  fuel  is  scarce,  the  estiercol  of  the  ass  is  used  in  its  -stead, 

*  The  bread  made  from  the  manihot  was  the  principal  article  of  food  among 
the  Caribs,  when  they  were  first  discovered  by  the  Europeans.  They  called  it 
Yuea. 


■ 


1838.]  PORTO    PRAYA.  39 

as  hunters  and  travellers  on  the  American  prairies  use  the 
bois  de  vache  of  the  buffalo.  Horses  are  found  here,  but  the 
principal  beast  of  burden  is  the  ass,  which  carries  its  load  in 
panniers.  A  long  string  of  the  animals,  frequently  seen 
dashing  at  full  speed  over  the  sand,  is  called  a  hato. 

White  cotton  shirts,  aprons,  and  trowsers,  are  worn  by  the 
men,  with  dark  vests,  generally  purchased  at  second  hand 
from  the  crews  of  the  vessels  frequenting  the  islands.  Some- 
times they  wear  straw  hats  on  their  heads,  but  oftener  noth- 
ing. Party-colored  turbans  and  handkerchiefs  form  the  head- 
gear of  the  women ;  a  shawl  fastened  about  the  waist,  and 
another  thrown  over  the  bust  and  tied  behind,  complete  the 
dress. 

The  gobernddor,  or  governor,  of  the  islands,  resides  at 
Porto  Praya,  in  St.  Jago.  This  island  is  about  sixty  miles 
in  circumference,  and  is  the  most  fertile  and  productive  of  the 
group.  The  former  capital  was  Ribeira  Grande,  but  Porto 
Praya  now  enjoys  that  distinction.  The  latter  contains  be- 
tween two  and  three  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  situated  on 
an  elevated  plateau  overlooking  the  bay.  Its  whitewashed 
walls  and  battlements  may  be  descried  far  out  at  sea,  and 
betoken  a  greater  degree  of  cleanliness  than  is  witnessed  on 
landing.  Blind  beggars  and  naked  children, — pigs,  fowls, 
and  monkeys, — cross  the  path  at  every  step.  Black  soldiers, 
wi  th  huge  muskets  generally  out  of  repair,  patrol  the  entrdda 
of  the  Presidio,  or  governor's  house ;  and  a  squad  of  dirty 
recruits  going  through  the  manual  exercise  is  usually  the 
most  striking  object  in  the  plaza.  Officers,  as  well  as  men, 
including  the  governor,  are  black.  A  market  is  held  daily  in 
the  square,  when  there  are  any  vessels  in  port. 

A  rocky  ghaut,  or  pass,  leads  to  the  Valley  of  Dates,  half 
a  mile  west  of  the  town,  which  is  one  of  the  most  attractive 
features  of  the  island.  Here  was  formerly  the  public  foun- 
tain, from  which  water  was  obtained  for  the  inhabitants  and 
shipping.  They  are  now  supplied  by  a  reservoir,  constructed 
at  the  expense  of  the  government,  and  filled  with  water 
brought  in  iron  pipes  a  distance  of  two  miles.     The  soil  of 


40  ARRIVAL   AT    RIO  JANEIRO.  [1838. 

the  valley  is  a  ljch  loam  and  the  date  tree  grows  luxuriantly. 
Lime,  orange,  banana,  cocoanut,  tamarind  and  papaw  trees,* 
are  also  scattered  through  it,  together  with  other  tropical 
fruits  and  plants. 

(8.)  The  squadron  left  Porto  Praya  on  the  7th  of  October, 
and  continued  their  course  southward,  in  search  of  the  shoals, 
said  to  lie  in  this  quarter  of  the  ocean,  off  the  African 
coast ;  but  none  of  particular  importance  were  discovered. 
The  nights  were  clear  and  beautiful  till  near  morning,  and 
the  zodiacal  light  was  once  or  twice  observed.  Falling  stars, 
some  of  them  of  unusual  brilliancy,  were  witnessed  on  the 
morning  of  the  18th  of  October,  and  on  the  nights  of  the 
11th,  12th,  and  13th,  of  November.  Large  shoals  of  dol- 
phins, and  wide  luminous  patches  of  phosphorescent  animal- 
culae,  were  also  seen.  About  the  first  of  November,  they 
crossed  the  Equator,  and  on  the  22d  caught  sight  of  the  rich 
neutral-tints  resting,  like  a  halo,  over  the  tall  and  rugged 
summit  of  Cape  Frio,  forty  miles  north  of  Rio  Janeiro. 
Favored  by  a  light  wind  from  the  southeast,  they  entered  the 
broad  harbor  of  Rio,  under  full  press  of  canvas,  on  the  af- 
ternoon of  the  23d ;  having  accomplished  the  passage  in 
ninety-five  days,  about  twice  the  time  usually  required  by  a 
vessel  proceeding  directly  from  the  United  States.  The 
store-ship  Relief  took  the  direct  course  ;  but,  in  consequence 
of  her  slow  sailing,  she  was  one  hundred  days,  three  of  which 
were  spent  at  the  Cape  de  Verdes,  in  making  the  trip. 

*  The  papaw,  or  papaya,  grows  to  the  height  of  eighteen  or  twenty  feet.  It 
is  nearly  naked  to  the  top,  where  the  leaves  start  out  on  every  side,  with  long 
footstalks.  The  fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  melon,  grows  between  the  leaves,  and 
is  boiled,  and  eaten  with  meat,  like  ordinary  vegetables.  The  juice  is  pungent 
and  milky,  but  this  is  extracted  by  the  process  of  boiling. 


CHAPTER  II. 


(1.)  Harbor  of  Rio  Janeiro. — (2.)  Palace  of  the  Emperor.  His  Birthday. — 
(3.)  Churches  in  the  city.  Sunday.— (4.)  Private  Dwellings.  Streets  and 
Fountains. — (5.)  Number  of  inhabitants.  State  of  Education.  Funerals. 
Amusements. — (G.)  Condition  and  occupations  of  the  slaves. — (7.)  Suburbs 
of  the  city.  Appearance  of  the  country — (8.)  The  Empire  of  Brazil.  Pro- 
ducts.— (9.)  Mines. — (10.)  Imports  and  Exports. — (11.)  Sailing  of  the 
Squadron. 

(1.)  Coming  from  the  sea,  Rio  Janeiro,  or  more  properly, 
perhaps,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  presents  a  grand  and  imposing  ap- 
pearance. The  city  is  built  on  the  southern  shore,  close  to 
the  entrance,  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name.  Near  it,  but 
higher  up,  is  the  pretty  town  of  San  Domingo,  and  directly 
opposite,  is  Praya  Grande.  The  bay  is  a  fine  sheet  of  water, 
one  hundred  miles  in  circumference,  and  sprinkled,  here  and 
there,  with  small  evergreen  islands. 

On  the  right,  as  you  pass  up  to  the  anchorage,  is  Fort 
Santa  Cruz,  at  the  foot  of  Signal  Hill ;  on  the  left  is  Fort 
St.  Lucia,  on  an  island  near  the  mainland ;  beyond  this,  in 
the  same  direction,  is  Sugar  Loaf  Hill — an  isolated  rock  one 
thousand  feet  high,  around  whose  lofty  crest  the  white  fleecy 
clouds  forever  linger  ;  and  further  on,  are  the  notched  and 
uneven  peaks  of  Gavia  and  Corcovado.  In  front  is  the  busy 
and  thriving  capital  of  the  Brazilian  Empire, — a  forest  of 
tapering  masts  and  spars  in  the  foreground,  and  richly  deco- 
rated churches,  glittering  facades,  and  massive  tiled  roofs,  in 
the  rear.  Behind  these  are  the  blooming  environs  of  the 
city,  gay  gardens,  delightful  quintas,  cool  shady  groves  and 
verdant  forests,  stretching  far  away  into  the  interior, — a  con- 
stant succession  of  beautiful  objects  meeting  the  eye,  till  the 
view  is  bounded  in  the  west  by  the  towering  pinnacles  of  the 


42  BIRTHDAY    OF    THE    EMPEROR.  [1838. 

Organ  Mountains,  boldly  pencilled  against  the  pure  azure 
of  a  tropical  sky. 

(2.)  St.  Christoval,  in  the  suburbs  of  Rio  Janeiro,  is  the 
usual  residence  of  the  Emperor,  Pedro  II ;  but  his  principal 
levees  are  held  at  the  city  palace,  which  he  occupies  on  all 
great  occasions.  This  is  almost  the  first  prominent  object 
that  presents  itself,  after  ascending  the  rickety  stairs  at  the 
usual  place  of  landing.  It  stands  on  the  Rua  Direita,  the 
broadest  street  in  the  city,  and  is  a  heavy  stone  structure  in 
the  shape  of  a  parallelogram.  It  has  a  front  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet,  and  extends  about  two  hundred  feet  to  the 
rear.  The  main  centre  building  is  three  stories  high,  and 
the  wings  two  stories.  On  one  side  of  the  court,  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  palace,  is  the  Senate  House,  and  on  the  other  a 
splendid  church  belonging  to  the  Carmelite  friars,  near  which 
is  the  Imperial  chapel,  a  pretty  little  bijou  of  a  thing  erected 
by  the  mother  of  the  Emperor.*  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
is  nearly  a  mile  from  the  palace,  in  the  Campo  de  Aclangao. 

While  the  Exploring  Squadron  was  lying  in  the  harbor  of 
Rio,  the  Emperor  made  a  visit  to  the  city  palace,  in  state,  on 
the  occasion  of  his  birth  day,  which  took  place  on  the  2d  of 
December.  Escorted  by  a  large  body  of  troops,  he  entered 
the  city  about  noon,  in  a  splendid  gilt  carriage,  English 
built,  drawn  by  eight  cream-colored  horses  guided  by  grooms 
in  rich  liveries.  His  two  sisters,  one  sixteen,  and  the  other 
fourteen  years  of  age — the  former  of  whom  afterwards  mar- 
ried the  Prince  de  Joinville,  son  of  Louis  Philippe — rode  in 
the  carriage  with  him.  The  inhabitants  collected  every- 
where on  the  line  of  his  route  to  welcome  him.  Triumphal 
arches  spanned  the  streets  ;  rich  satin  draperies,  intermingled 
with  festoons  of  natural  and  artificial  flowers,  ornamented 
the  fronts  of  the  dwellings :  national  flags  were  displayed  on 
every  public  building ;  and  the  custom-house  was  ornamented 
with  a  bright  collection  of  standards,  conspicuous  among 
which  was  that  of  the  American  Union.     The  ships  in  the 

*  The  Empress  was  for  a  long  time  childless,  and  made  a  vow  that  she  would 
erect  a  church  when  she  became  a  mother,  which  she  religiously  fulfilled. 


1838.]  CHURCHES    IN    THE    CITY.  43 

bay  were  dressed  with  flags,  and  at  twelve  o'clock,  meridian, 
a  grand  royal  salute  was  fired  from  the  forts,  which  was  re- 
turned by  the  vessels  of  war.  As  the  Imperial  pageant 
passed  on,  loud  prolonged  vivas  mingled  with  the  clashing  of 
cymbals,  and  the  braying  of  trumpets.  The  Emperor  was 
then  but  a  mere  lad,  only  thirteen  years  of  age  ;  yet  he  re- 
turned the  congratulations  of  his  subjects  with  ease  and  dig- 
nity. Arrived  at  the  great  square  in  front  of  the  palace, 
which  was  densely  crowded  with  citizens,  and  strangers  from 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe,  a  feu  de  joie  was  fired  by  the 
troops,  the  Emperor  exhibited  himself  in  the  balconies  of  the 
palace,  and  a  levee,  attended  by  the  foreign  ministers  and 
their  suites,  completed  the  ceremonies  of  the  day. 

(3.)  Rio  abounds  in  churches.  On  the  outside,  they  bear 
marks  of  decay,  and  the  steps  and  vestibules  are  frequently 
used  by  the  market  people  to  display  their  wares.  In  the 
interior,  however,  they  are  gorgeously  decorated,  with  orna- 
ments of  gold  and  silver,  and  fine  specimens  of  painting  and 
sculpture.  The  music  is  always  good,  and  on  important  oc- 
casions especially  attractive.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
Roman  Catholics,  but  they  are  fast  losing  their  attachment 
to  the  religion  of  their  forefathers.  The  churches  are  regu- 
larly opened  for  public  worship  on  the  Sabbath,  and  at  other 
times  during  the  week,  but  they  are  slimly  attended.  As  in 
most  Catholic  countries,  Sunday  is  a  complete  gala  day. 
The  stores  and  shops,  particularly  those  where  fancy  articles 
are  sold,  and  the  cafes  and  coffee  saloons,  are  kept  open ; 
hunting,  riding,  and  fishing,  usurp  the  place  of  the  forms  and 
ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  ritual ;  the  billiard  rooms  are 
crowded;  and  the  performances  at  the  theatres,  of  which 
there  are  three  in  the  city,  are  witnessed  by  a  far  more  nu- 
merous auditory  than  may  be  seen  in  the  Cathedral. 

The  English  and  American  residents  erected  a  neat  Epis- 
copal church,  near  the  public  gardens  on  the  bay,  in  1820, 
which  is  inclosed  by  an  iron  railing,  and  has  a  yard  in  front 
paved  with  granite.     Service  is  held  here  with  great  punctu- 


44  DWELLINGS    AND    STREETS.  [1838. 

ality  ;  and  there  are  missionaries  belonging  to  other  denomi- 
nations residing  in  the  city. 

(4.)  The  houses  are  built  of  granite,  large  beds  of  which 
have  been  opened  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital.  The  blocks 
are  cemented  together  with  clay,  in  consequence  of  the 
scarcity  of  lime,  which  is  principally  obtained  by  burning 
sea-shells.  The  floors,  beams,  and  rafters,  are  made  of  the 
hard  wood  for  which  Brazil  is  famous.  This  is  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish,  and  might  be  made  to  add  very  much  to 
the  neatness  and  beauty  of  the  dwellings ;  but  wainscoting 
is  scarcely  ever  seen,  and  the  interior  walls  and  ceilings  are 
usually  provided  with  a  rough  coating  of  plaster,  though  the 
apartments  of  the  wealthier  citizens  are  often  ornamented 
with  stucco  work  and  fresco  painting,  in  rich  and  fanciful 
designs,  or  with  silk  and  damask  curtains  and  tapestries. 
The  outer  walls  are  also  plastered,  and  generally  wear  a 
lively  look.  Most  of  the  houses  are  two  stories  in  height, 
though  some  exceed  this.  They  have  tall  pyramidal  roofs, 
surmounted  with  red  tiles,  which  sometimes  project  fearfully. 
The  doors  and  windows  have  heavy  lintels  and  casings  ;  and 
jutting  balconies,  and  wide,  disproportioned — though,  in  a 
hot  day,  very  comfortable — verandas,  are  regarded  as  essen- 
tial requisites  to  every  private  habitation. 

With  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  streets  are  long  and  nar- 
row, and,  for  the  most  part,  gloomy  and  sombre  in  appearance. 
They  are  badly  paved  with  rudely-fashioned  blocks  of  granite, 
and  in  the  middle  of  them  are  the  gutters,  the  receptacles  of 
all  the  filth  and  abomination  of  a  seaport  town.  Sidewalks 
are  mainly  dispensed  with,  and  those  which  have  been  con- 
structed are  never  in  good  repair.  There  can  be  no  just  ex- 
cuse for  the  want  of  cleanliness  indicated  by  the  condition  of 
the  streets.  The  location  is  highly  favorable  ;  wheeled  ve- 
hicles for  carrying  burdens  are  comparatively  little  used,  only 
a  few  antique  coaches,  and  two-wheeled  calescas,  or  calashes, 
occasionally  jolting  along  over  the  rough  pavements ;  and  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  is  brought  in  aqueducts,  from  the 
Corcovado  and  Tejuca  mountains,  six  or  seven  miles  distant. 


1838.]  POPULATION    OP   THE    CITY.  45 

There  are  numerous  fountains,  also,  scattered  over  the  city, 
in  the  plazas,  or  squares  ;  and  sparkling  jets  of  crystal  water 
may  be  seen  in  all  directions,  diffusing  their  grateful  coolness 
through  the  heated  and  impure  atmosphere.  Some  of  the 
reservoirs  have  tastefully  constructed  edifices  erected  over 
them,  which  are  alike  useful  and  ornamental.  The  inhabi- 
tants rely,  almost  entirely,  upon  the  fountains,  for  water  for 
domestic  purposes,  which  is  carried  by  their  slaves,  in  jars,  or 
buckets,  on  their  heads  ;  and  "  from  dusky  morn  till  dewy 
eve,"  they  are  surrounded  by  a  motley  collection  of  water- 
carriers,  engaged  in  filling  their  vessels,  chattering  the  while 
like  so  many  magpies,  and  laughing  and  jesting  gayly  with 
their  companions.  Near  the  fountain  of  Hafariz,  the  largest 
in  the  city,  there  are  two  stone  basins,  fifty  feet  long  and 
twenty-five  wide,  which  are  daily  filled  with  from  two  to 
three  hundred  negro  washerwomen,  who  stand  in  the  water, 
often  half  naked,  all  the  day  long,  constantly  drubbing  and 
rinsing  their  clothes. 

(5.)  The  city  of  Rio  Janeiro  contains  not  far  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  inhabitants,  a  great  part  of 
whom  are  slaves.  In  former  years,  the  society  was  not  very 
good,  but  latterly  there  has  been  a  change  for  the  better  in 
this  respect,  though  there  is  still  sufficient  room  for  improve- 
ment. Comparatively  little  attention  is  paid  to  education, 
especially  among  the  female  sex.  The  presence  of  the  foreign 
ministers  and  their  suites,  and  of  intelligent  merchants  and 
travellers,  has  given  a  higher  tone  and  polish  to  society, 
though  the  intercourse  between  the  Brazilians  and  the  citi- 
zens of  other  countries  is  not  altogether  free  from  restraint. 
This  may  be  attributed,  partly  to  the  natural  jealousy  of 
their  dispositions,  and  partly  to  the  consciousness  of  their  de- 
fective education.  Females  are  rarely  seen  at  public  assem- 
blages and  parties,  and  the  visits  which  they  interchange 
with  each  other  are  rather  formal  and  ceremonious  than 
cheerful  and  friendly.  These  impediments  and  drawbacks 
to  an  easy  and  unrestrained  social  intercourse  are  gradually 
being  softened  down,  and  they  must  soon  entirely  disappear 


s 


46  STATE    OP    SOCIETY.  [1838. 

The  time  cannot  be  very  far  distant  when  Rio  will  become, 
what  the  capital  of  one  of  the  richest  countries  on  the  Amer- 
ican Continent  ought  to  be,  as  celebrated  for  the  taste  and 
refinement  of  its  inhabitants,  as  for  its  importance  and  ad- 
antages  as  a  commercial  city. 

A  fondness  for  meretricious  display  and  ornament  is  ex- 
hibited by  both  sexes  in  their  dress  ;  they  endeavor  to  follow 
the  French  mode,  but  are  such  zealous  copyists  that  they 
very  often  overdo  the  original.  This  is  much  better,  how- 
ever, than  the  opposite  extreme.  It  is  certainly  more  desir- 
able that  the  Brazilian  ladies  should  appear  in  dresses 
powdered  with  jewels,  or  fringed  with  silver,  or  in  party-col- 
ored robes  and  ribbons,  on  the  most  unsuitable  occasions,  than 
that  they  should  be  confined  to  their  boudoirs — their  only 
knowledge  of  the  world  derived  from  occasional  glimpses 
through  their  half-opened  jalousies,  and  from  the  balconies  of 
their  apartments — or  immured  for  life  in  the  dark  walls  of  a 
convent.  Ease  and  suavity  of  manners  will,  sooner  or  later, 
follow  a  "  reverence  for  Turkey  carpets  and  ormolu" 

There  is  a  large  public  library,  and  a  well-stored  museum, 
in  the  city.  The  latter  is  open  twice  a  week,  and  both  are 
much  frequented  by  the  inhabitants. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  sights  to  be  witnessed  in  Rio 
is  a  funeral,  particularly  of  one  of  the  wealthier  classes  ;  for 
Doverty,  here  as  elsewhere,  is  rarely  troubled  with  ceremony. 
The  body  of  the  humble  laborer  or  artisan  is  carried  to  the 
Misericordia;  a  hasty  prayer  is  said,  a  little  lime  sprinkled 
over  his  decaying  remains,  and  he  is  thrown  into  a  trench 
with  some  half-a-dozen  others  of  the  same  stamp,  and  left  to 
his  long  sleep, — while  his  neighbor  of  distinction,  is  borne 
to  his  last  resting-place,  attended  with  all  the  pageantry  of 
woe.  His  body  is  wrapped  in  satin  robes,  and  his  coffin  is 
decorated  with  a  scarlet  pall  ornamented  with  silver  lace  and 
fringe.  The  latter  is  placed  on  a  black  hearse,  overhung  with 
long  nodding  plumes,  and  drawn  by  mules  in  ricli  trappings, 
sometimes  covered  with  silver  bells.  The  driver  wears  a 
cocked  hat,  trimmed  with  lace,  and  adorned  with  a  black 


1838.]  FUNERALS    AND    AMUSEMENTS.  0 

plume.  The  hearse  is  preceded  by  altar-boys  in  their 
church  dresses,  and  surrounded  by  the  black  servants  of  the 
deceased,  all  bearing  lighted  wax  candles.  Arrived  at  the 
church,  or  chapel,  where  the  services  are  to  be  performed, 
the  coffin  is  temporarily  deposited  near  the  altar,  and  the 
friends  and  relatives  arrange  themselves  along  the  aisles. 
All  the  spectators  having  been  furnished  with  lighted  tapers, 
the  priests  enter  from  the  sacristy  arrayed  in  their  rich 
sacerdotal  vestments.  Clouds  of  odorous  smoke  are  emitted 
from  the  swinging  gold  and  silver  censers,  and  mass  and  the 
funeral  rites  are  said  from  splendidly  illuminated  service- 
books.  This  done,  the  pall  is  removed,  the  coffin  opened, 
and  holy  water  thrown  over  the  dead,  after  which  the  body 
is  taken  to  the  place  of  interment. 

A  favorite  burial-place  is  the  Campo  Santo,  or  cemetery, 
near  the  Imperial  chapel.  This  is  an  amphitheatre,  with 
high  walls  in  which  the  vaults  are  built,  surrounding  a 
flower-garden.  The  coffins  are  deposited  in  niches  just  large 
enough  for  their  admission,  which  are  closed  up  with  mason- 
work. 

Notwithstanding  their  reserve  on  ordinary  occasions,  the 
citizens  of  Rio  Janeiro  are  fond  of  amusements.  There  are 
three  theatres  in  the  city,  all  of  which  are  well  attended. 
Hunting,  riding  and  fishing,  are  favorite  pastimes.  White- 
jacket  balls,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the  gentlemen  who 
attend  them  appear  in  white  jackets  and  trowsers,  and  the 
ladies  in  white  dresses,  without  ornaments  or  jewelry,  are 
held  monthly  at  Praya  Grande ;  and  similar  entertainments 
are  frequently  given  at  Gloria  Botofogo,  and  other  small 
towns  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital. 

(6.)  The  great  excess  of  the  slave  over  the  white  popula- 
tion in  Rio  Janeiro,  is  soon  noticed  by  the  stranger.  The 
former  are  nearly  five  times  more  numerous  than  the  latter. 
In  the  city,  burdens  are  carried  almost  exclusively  by  slaves, 
and  scores  of  them  may  be  seen  at  all  hours  of  the  day, 
bearing  their  water  buckets,  or  staggering  under  packages 
of  hides  or  bags  of  coffee.     They  usually  go  in  gangs  of 


48  SLAVES    AND    SLAVERY.  [1838. 

from  twelve  to  thirty,  sometimes  yoked  together  with  heavy 
necklaces  of  iron  and  attended  by  a  driver,  and  at  others 
headed  by  a  leader,  one  of  their  own  number,  who  carries  a 
small  tin  rattle,  filled  with  stones,  with  which  he  keeps  time. 
They  move  along  at  a  slow  trot  humming  a  monotonous 
refrain,  the  words  of  which  are  often  changed,  though  the 
sound  is  rarely  varied.  Many  masters  rely  solely  upon  the 
income  derived  from  the  earnings  of  their  slaves,  who  are 
required  to  pay  over  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  cents,  according 
to  their  ability,  every  evening.  If  they  are  so  fortunate  as 
to  earn  more  during  the  day,  the  surplus  is  their  own ;  but 
if  they  fail  to  produce  the  prescribed  amount,  they  are 
severely  whipped.  The  females  who  are  not  employed  as 
house  servants,  work  at  millinery,  or  other  light  handicrafts. 

Those  slaves  that  carry  burdens  in  the  streets,  or  work  in 
the  fields,  are  poorly  fed  and  scantily  clothed,  scarcely  ever 
wearing  anything  more  than  a  slight  covering  about  the 
loins.  Unlike  the  owners  of  slaves  in  most  civilized  coun- 
tries, the  Brazilians  manifest  but  little  feeling  for  their 
servants.  When  they  become  worn  out,  or  seriously 
diseased,  they  are  generally  turned  into  the  world,  without 
compunction,  and  left  to  die  unfriended  and  alone. 

In  1830,  the  slave  trade  was  prohibited  ;  but  from  seven 
to  ten  thousand  blacks  are  now  imported,  annually,  in  defi- 
ance of  the  law.  Pains  are  taken,  however,  to  prevent  their 
increase.  The  two  sexes  are  usually  locked  up  at  night  in 
different  apartments,  and  all  intercourse  between  them  is 
prevented  as  far  as  possible. 

(7.)  If  within  the  city  of  Rio,  the  eye  is  pained  by  the 
constant  recurrence  of  stone  and  mortar — very  few  of  the 
houses  having  either  yards  or  gardens — ample  atonement  is 
made  for  this  defect  in  the  suburbs  and  environs.  Here  all 
is  bright  and  beautiful.  A  superabundant  vegetation,  flowers 
of  the  gayest  colors,  gardens  filled  with  fruit  trees  and  choice 
shrubby  plants,  and  wide-spreading  groves  of  tamarinds, 
oranges  and  bananas,  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  distant  moun- 
tains.    But  the  delightful  qui  tas,  or  country  residences, 


1838.]  THE    SUBURBS    OF    RIO.  49 

half  hidden  by  thick  screens  of  mangrove  bushes,  or  peeping 
out  from  behind  hedges  of  laurels  and  myrtles,  or  rows  of 
quaintly  clipped  arbor  vitse,  constitute  the  chief  attraction 
as  you  progress  towards  the  interior.  There  are,  likewise, 
fields  of  corn  and  sugar  cane  in  the  champaign  country,  and 
on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  are  the  coffee  plantations,  present- 
ing, in  the  season,  a  constant  succession  of  ephemeral  white 
blossoms.  Wild  roses,  tufts  of  sweet  scented  marjoram,  and 
different  varieties  of  cacti,  spring  up  by  the  wayside,  and, 
ever  and  anon, 

"  The  white  Camella  rears 
Its  innocent  and  tranquil  eye." 

Further  on,  are  bosky  dingles  and  leafy  coverts,  from 
whence  the  shrill  chirp  of  the  cicada  is  heard  long  after  the 
dense  forests  that  limit  the  view  in  the  west  are  overspread 
with  the  sober  hue  of  the  passing  day. 

(8.)  Pedro  Alvares  Cabral  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
discoverer  of  Brazil.  He  visited  the  country  in  1500,  when 
on  his  way  to  the  East  Indies,  where  he  had  been  sent  with 
a  fleet  by  King  Emanuel,  of  Portugal.  Previous  to  this 
time,  however,  a  Spanish  mariner,  by  the  name  of  Lepe,  had 
penetrated  as  far  south  as  the  Brazilian  strand,  and  two  other 
Castilian  navigators  had  landed  and  taken  formal  possession 
of  the  territory  for  the  crown  of  Castile, — but  the  claims  of 
Spain  were  subsequently  relinquished  by  the  treaty  of 
Tordesillas.  Cabral  first  gave  it  the  name  of  Santa  Cruz, 
afterwards  changed,  by  his  sovereign,  to  Brazil,  in  allusion 
to  the  Brazil-wood  found  in  the  country,  which,  in  turn, 
derived  its  name  from  the  Portuguese  braza,  a  live  coal  or 
fire,  referring  to  the  brilliant  red  color  of  this  important 
dyeing  material. 

For  several  years  after  its  separation  from  Portugal,  Brazil 
was  subject  to  internal  political  dissensions  and  commotions ; 
but  since  the  abdication  of  Pedro  I,  in  1831,  it  has  been 
tolerably  quiet,  and  has  steadily  improved  in  commerce  and 
advanced  in  refinement.     The  government  is  a  limited  mon- 

a 


50  BRAZILIAN    EMPIRE.  [1838. 

archy,  with  a  sovereign  styled  an  Emperor.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  two  houses — the  Senate,  and  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  The  people  seem  to  be  well  satisfied  with  their 
form  of  government,  but  there  exists  a  very  friendly  feeling 
towards  the  United  States  and  their  institutions,  which  it 
is  for  the  pecuniary  interest  of  both  countries  sedulously  tc 
cultivate. 

Brazil  is  not  wanting  in  the  elements  of  greatness.  She 
embraces  within  her  boundaries  a  vast  area  of  territory — 
over  three  million  square  miles — and  her  soil  is  highly  fertile 
and  productive.  Nature  has  projected  almost  everything 
that  belongs  to  her  on  a  magnificent  scale :  she  has  four 
thousand  miles  of  sea  coast ;  her  plains  and  valleys  are  vast 
and  extensive,  and  her  rivers*  and  mountains  grand  and 
imposing.  Her  population  is  computed  to  be  five  millions. 
About  one  fourth  are  whites,  who  chiefly  occupy  the  narrow 
strip  along  the  Atlantic  and  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes ; 
and  the  remainder  are  negroes,  mulattoes,  and  Indians. 
Many  of  the  savage  tribes  in  the  interior,  who  live  remote 
from  the  white  settlements  and  mission  establishments,  are 
exceedingly  ferocious. 

Few  countries  surpass  Brazil  in  the  richness  of  her  Flora, 
and  her  forests  are  truly  magnificent ; — although  the  second 
growth  is  generally  thickly  matted  with  the  bamboo  that 
furnishes  the  material  for  the  huts  of  the  half-civilized 
Indians,  which  are  covered  with  thatches  of  palm,  in  their 
primeval  state  they  are  comparatively  free  from  underbrush; 
and  the  unsightly  daddocks,  which  so  often  mar  the  beauty 
of  northern  scenery,  are  rarely  encountered.  Cedars,  as 
stately  as  those  which,  in  ancient  days,  shaded  the  brow  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  rear  their  giant  limbs  towards  the  sky. 
Oaks,  of  various  fantastic  forms,  lofty  palms  and  eaesalpinias, 
wide  spreading  mangos  and  tall  and  slender  cecropias,  are 
mingled  with   sycamores,  myrtles   and    acacias, — with    the 

*  Steamboats  can  ascend  the  Amazon,  and  its  main  tributary  near  its  source, 
the  Ucayali,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Tambo,  or  Apurimac,  nearly  four  thousand 
miles  above  Para. 


1838.J  PRODUCTS    OF    THE    COUNTRY.  5L 

juvia,*  the  cassada,  the  mahogany,  and  the  macaw  tree.  In 
many  sections  of  the  country,  and  particularly  on  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Amazon,  there  are  miniature  forests,  or  groves, 
of  cacao,  of  surpassing  beauty. 

Besides  the  rich  cabinet  and  dye-woods  found  in  the 
Brazilian  forests,  the  finest  timber  for  ship-building  is  also 
obtained,  in  abundance.  Excellent  cordage  resisting  the 
action  of  water,  is  manufactured  of  the  fibres  of  the  palm 
tree.  From  the  nuts,  or  seeds,  of  the  cacao,  the  preparations 
known  as  cocoa  and  chocolate,  are  made  ;  this  tree,  sometimes 
called  the  chocolate-tree,  is  a  species  of  theobroma,  growing 
about  twenty  feet  high,  and  bearing  oval  and  pointed  pods, 
in  which  are  the  numerous  seeds  imbedded  in  a  white,  pithy 
substance.  The  mango  produces  a  fruit  as  large  as  an 
orange,  and  resembling  the  egg  plant  in  shape  ;  it  has  a  thick 
outer  rind,  beneath  which  is  the  fruit,  of  a  fine  golden  color, 
surrounding  a  pit  two  inches  long,  to  which  it  adheres,  and 
possessing  the  mingled  flavor  of  pine-apple  and  spruce. 

The  agave,  here  called  furcrcea,  from  its  long  furcated 
leaves,  attains  its  highest  state  of  perfection  in  this  climate. 
Prominent  among  the  other  plants  and  shrubs,  are  the  nu- 
merous varieties  of  the  orchis  tribe,  with  their  odorous  and 
beautiful  flowers,  the  vochysia  and  its  gorgeous  yellow  blos- 
soms, the  cupheas  with  their  clusters  of  lilac  and  purple,  the 
lobelias  and  their  long  blue  spikes,  the  towering  organum, 
the  anil,  or  indigo  plant,  the  vanilla,  the  sarsaparilla,  and  the 
coffee-tree.  Until  of  late  years,  the  indigo  plant  was  not 
very  extensively  cultivated  in  Brazil:  it  is  usually  planted 
towards  the  latter  part  of  March,  twelve  pounds  of  seed 
being  allotted  to  the  acre,  and  if  the  season  is  favorable,  it 
will  be  ready  to  cut  by  the  first  of  July.  The  maturity  of 
the  plant  is  indicated  by  the  bursting  forth  of  the  flower- 
buds,  and  the  expansion  of  the  blossoms.  Two  croppings  are 
taken  during  the  year.  The  indigo  is  extracted  by  steeping 
the  dried  leaves  and  stems,  or  by  allowing  them  to  ferment 
when  fresh ;  the  former  process  being  considered  the  most 

*  The  Brazil  nut  is  the  fruit  of  the  Juvia. 


52  COFFEE,  AND   OTHER   PRODUCTIONS.  [1838. 

advantageous.  A  liquor  is  obtained,  by  either  mode,  which 
is  churned  or  agitated  till  the  dye  begins  to  granulate  ;  the 
flakes  are  then  permitted  to  settle,  the  remaining  liquor  is 
drawn  off,  and  the  indigo  is  drained  in  bags,  and  dried  in 
boxes. 
>/  One  of  the  chief  staples  of  Brazil  is  obtained  from  the 
coffee-bush.  This  shrub,  in  its  natural  state,  rises  to  the 
height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  but,  when  cultivated,  it  is 
kept  down  by  pruning,  to  five  or  six  feet,  for  the  greater  con- 
venience thus  afforded  of  gathering  the  fruit.  The  main 
stem  is  upright,  and  has  a  light  brown  bark  ;  the  branches 
shoot  out  horizontally  and  opposite,  crossing  each  other  at 
every  joint;  and  forming  a  sort  of  pyramid  ;  the  flowers, 
which  are  of  a  pure  white  color,  like  those  of  the  Spanish 
jasmine,  grow  in  clusters,  at  the  roots  of  the  leaves,  along 
the  branches.  The  flowers  soon  fade,  and  are  replaced  by  a 
fruit  resembling  a  cherry,  which  contains  a  yellow  glairy 
fluid  enveloping  two  seeds  or  coffee  berries.  The  seeds  are 
glued  together,  and  each  is  surrounded  by  a  peculiar  coria- 
ceous membrane.  All  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Brazil, 
there  are  extensive  plantations  of  coffee,  the  culture  of  which 
is  said  to  be  highly  profitable.  When  the  cherry-looking  fruit 
assumes  a  deep  red  color,  it  is  gathered,  and  passed  between 
two  wooden  revolving  rollers,  and  a  third  fixed  one,  from 
which  it  falls  upon  a  sieve  that  separates  the  pulp  from  the 
beans.  The  latter  are  then  steeped  for  a  night  in  water, 
carefully  washed  in  the  morning,  and  afterwards  dried  in  the 
sun.  They  are  now  detached  from  the  coriaceous  husk  sur- 
rounding them,  by  a  wooden  edge  wheel  turned  vertically  by 
a  horse  or  mule,  and  the  membranes  are  subsequently  sepa- 
rated from  the  berries  by  a  winnowing  machine.  The  final 
process  consists  in  spreading  the  coffee  upon  mats  or  tables, 
picking  it  clean,  and  packing  in  bags. 

Sugar  cane  grows  thriftily  in  the  low  grounds  and  interval 
lands,  and  all  the  tropical  fruits  are  also  produced ;  in  the 
interior,  on  the  more  elevated  localities,  where  the  vegetation 
begins  to  creep  up  the  sides  of  the   mountains,  the  shrubs 


1838.]  BIRDS    AND    ANIMALS.  53 

and  fruit  trees  natural  to  colder  climates  are  met  with  in 
great  variety. 

The  markets  in  the  Brazilian  towns  are  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  beef,  fish  and  poultry,  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds 
are  sold  in  the  streets.  The  principal  articles  of  food,  how- 
ever, especially  in  the  country,  are  came  seca,  or  dried  beef, 
and  farina,  a  preparation  of  the  manihot. 

It  is  not  only  for  their  valuable  timber  that  the  forests  of 
Brazil  are  celebrated.  Numerous  species  of  parasites  and 
creepers  abound, — bromelias,  bignonias,  honeysuckles,  and 
mistletoes, — which,  extending  their  long  sprays  from  tree  to 
tree,  from  limb  to  limb,  like  the  cordage  of  a  ship,  form  leafy 
coverts  that  afford  a  shelter  from  the  oppressive  heat  of  the 
equatorial  sun,  to  the  brute  denizens  of  these  vast  woodland 
solitudes.  Birds  displaying  in  their  plumage  all  the  bril- 
liancy and  splendor  possible  to  combine  from  gold  and  scarlet, 
purple  and  emerald ;  fierce  and  ravenous  beasts,  chatter- 
ing monkeys,  and  huge  scaly  serpents  and  alligators,  fre- 
quent these  dark  and  shady  retreats.  Conspicuous  among 
the  birds,  is  the  couroucoo,  whose  plumage  is  purple,  green, 
and  gold,  beautifully  blended  together ;  the  cephaloptem, 
which  has  a  singular  tuft  on  its  head,  like  a  parasol ;  the 
aicurus,  whose  head  is  variegated  with  yellow,  red  and  vio- 
let, its  body  green,  the  tips  of  its  wings  red,  and  its  long  tail 
yellow ;  the  mocking-bird,  famous  for  its  unrivalled  strains 
of  richest  melody ;  the  witwall,  or  golden  oriole,  whose 
swinging  nest,  depending  from  the  loftiest  tree,  sways  to  and 
fro  with  every  breeze ;  the  gay-coated  king  fisher ;  the  scarlet 
macaw ;  the  lustrous  jacamar  ;  the  guara,  of  a  vivid  red 
color  ;  the  cotinga  ;  and  the  many-tinted  paroquet.  Among 
the  beasts,  are  the  jaguar,  or  ounce  of  Brazil ;  the  puma ; 
the  tapir  ;  the  cabial ;  the  ant-eater  ;  the  paca,  which  re- 
sembles the  guinea-pig  ;  and  the  armadillo,  called  taton  by 
the  natives.  Of  the  monkeys  there  are  upwards  of  twenty 
different  species,  varying  in  color  and  size,  from  the  acari, 
or  scarlet  monkey,  to  the  silky  tamarin. 

In  the  interior  of  Brazil,  west  of  the  Araguay  river,  and 


54  mines.  J1839 

south  of  the  Acaray  mountains,  there  are  extensive  plains, 
wooded  near  the  streams,  but  elsewhere  covered  with  rank 
grass.  These  grassy  plains  are  called  llanos,  or  pampas; 
countless  herds  of  wild  horses  and  cattle  roam  over  them  at 
will,  unchecked  and  unpursued,  save  by  the  guachos,  or 
herdsmen,  who  spend  most  of  their  time  upon  horseback, 
armed  with  the  knife  and  lasso.  Immense  numbers  of  cat- 
tle are  annually  taken  by  them  and  slaughtered,  chiefly  for 
their  hides  and  horns,  though  the  hams,  and  sometimes  other 
portions  of  the  carcass,  are  smoked  or  jerked.  After  being 
cured,  the  hides  are  bound  up  in  packages,  for  exportation, 
one  of  which  is  called  a  last,  and  Contains  twelve  dozen. 

(9.)  Not  more  famous  were  the  pearls  of  Ormuz,  or  the 
diamonds  of  Golconda,  than,  in  former  days,  was  the  mine- 
ral wealth  of  Brazil.  This  may  be  said  to  have  been  meas- 
urably exhausted,  yet  the  annual  products  of  the  mines  and 
diamond  washings,  at  this  time,  are  by  no  means  inconsider- 
able. The  first  discovery  of  gold  was  made  in  1682,  at  Ca- 
lapreta,  in  the  sands  of  the  Mandi,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio 
Dolce.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  found  almost  everywhere 
in  the  streams  and  ravines  at  the  foot  of  the  Brazilian  Andes, 
from  the  fifth  to  the  thirtieth  degree  of  southern  latitude. 
The  most  productive  mines  are  near  Villa  Rica,  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  the  village  of  Cocaes :  a  remarkable  example  is 
here  presented,  of  the  existence  of  this  mineral  among  the 
primitive  strata,  disseminated  in  small  grains,  spangles  and 
crystals ;  great  quantities  of  native  gold,  in  spangles,  being 
obtained  from  beds  of  granular  quartz,  or  micaceous  specu- 
lar iron.  There  are,  also,  many  valuable  mines  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Minas  Geraes,  where  the  metal  is  found  in  veins,  in 
beds,  and  in  grains,  among  the  alluvial  loams;  and  there 
are  washings  yielding  handsome  profits,  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Cordilleras,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Amazon. 

From  1790  to  1802,  over  fifteen  thousand  pounds,  avoir- 
dupois, of  gold,  were  annually  taken  from  Brazil  to  Europe  ; 
but  the  yearly  product  is  now  estimated  at  only  two  thou- 


1838.]  ITJAMOND    WASHINGS.  55 

sand  eight  hundred  pounds,  of  the  value  of  one  million  ster- 
ling. 

The  matrix,  or  original  repository,  of  the  diamond  of  Bra- 
zil, is  brown  iron  ore,  occurring  in  beds  of  slaty  quartzose 
micaceous  iron  ore,  or  composed  of  iron-glance  and  magnetic 
iron  ore.  The  diamond  mines  were  originally  discovered  in 
1728,  in  the  district  of  Serro-do-Frio.  The  most  celebrated 
mine  is  that  of  Mandanga,  north  of  Rio  Janeiro,  on  the  Jigi- 
tonhonha.  The  river,  which  is  from  three  to  nine  feet  deep, 
is  made  nearly  dry,  by  drawing  the  water  off  with  sluices  at  cer- 
tain seasons  :  and  the  diamond  gravel,  here  called  cascalho,  is 
removed  from  the  bed  of  the  stream,  to  be  washed  elsewhere 
at  leisure.  The  gravel  is  always  collected  in  the  dry  season, 
and  washed  during  the  rainy.  For  the  latter  purpose,  a  stream 
of  water  is  admitted  into  a  number  of  boxes  containing  the 
cascalho,  beneath  an  oblong  shed.  Attached  to  each  box  is 
a  negro  washer,  and  there  are  inspectors  placed  at  regular 
distances,  on  elevated  stools.  Great  precautions  are  taken  to 
prevent  the  concealment  of  the  diamonds  by  the  washers, 
and  when  one  is  discovered,  the  finder  is  required  to  rise  up 
and  exhibit  it.  "When  the  negro  is  so  fortunate,  which  very 
rarely  happens,  as  to  discover  a  gem  weighing  seventeen  and 
a  half  carats,*  he  recovers  his  liberty.  The  earth  of  the 
bottom  lands  on  either  side  is  as  rich  in  diamonds  as  that  in 
the  channel  of  the  river.  All  the  diamonds  found  in  the  dis 
trict  of  Serro-do-Frio,  are  deposited,  monthly,  in  the  treasury 
at  Tejuco.  The  amount  thus  delivered,  from  1801  to  1806, 
has  been  estimated  at  about  eighteen  or  nineteen  thousand 
carats,  annually. 

-  There  are  fine  mines  of  diamonds  on  the  Rio  Pardo,  and 
at  Tocaya,  in  the  district  of  Minas  Novas,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Jigitonhonha  and  the  Rio  Grande.  The  largest  dia- 
monds, however,  obtained  in  Brazil,  are  found  in  the  cantons 
of  India  and  Abaite. 

In   addition   to  these  great   mineral  treasures,  there  are 

*  A  diamond  of  that  size  is  worth  £2400  sterling,  not  far  from  $10,000,  fed- 
eral currency. 


56  COMMERCE.  [1838 

mines  of  silver  and  platinum  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
In  the  canton  of  Abaite,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
there  are  rich  lead  mines,  and  a  fine  mine  of  antimony  has 
been  opened  near  Sahara  in  the  same  province.  Iron  is  like- 
wise found  in  Minas  Geraes,  at  Gaspar-Saarez,  and  there  are 
extensive  iron  mines  and  furnaces  in  the  captainry,  or  prov- 
ince, of  St.  Paul. 

(10.)  The  commerce  of  Brazil  is  rapidly  increasing  and 
extending.  Most  of  her  trade,  however,  is  carried  on  through 
the  vessels  of  other  nations,  although  she  has  a  very  respect- 
able commercial  maiine.  The  imports  amount  to  about 
twenty-five  millions  of  dollars  annually,  and  the  exports  or- 
dinarily exceed  that  sum.  Coffee  is  the  principal  article 
exported  from  the  central  provinces ;  upwards  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  million  pounds  being  shipped  every  year,  prin- 
cipally from  Rio  Janeiro  and  its  great  rival,  San  Salvador, 
or  Bahia,  on  the  Bay  of  All  Saints.  From  the  northern 
provinces,  sugar,  cotton  and  tobacco,  are  exported  through 
the  ports  of  Pernambuco,*  Maranham,  and  Para.  The  best 
caoutchouc,  also,  is  exported  from  Para,  in  large  quantities  * 
it  is  extracted  from  the  siphonia  cahuca,  or  siphonia  elastica, 
which  is  found  in  other  parts  of  South  America,  as  well  as 
in  Brazil,  although  it  is  nowhere  so  valuable  as  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Para.  Incisions  are  made  into  the  tree,  through  the 
bark,  in  several  places,  from  which  a  milky  juice,  of  a  pale  yel- 
low color,  and  having  the  consistence  of  cream,  is  discharged ; 
this  is  spread  upon  clay  moulds,  and  dried  in  the  sun,  or  by 
the  smoke  of  a  fire.  The  latter  process,  however,  blackens 
the  gum.  Of  late  years,  the  juice  has  been  extensively  ex- 
ported ;  but  it  is  generally  shipped  in  a  concrete  state.  It  is 
better  known  among  us  by  the  names  of  gum  elastic,  and 
india  rubber,  than  by  its  appropriate  one  of  caoutchouc. 

Hides,  tallow  and   horns,  are  the  chief  products  of  the 

*  A  large  portion  of  the  population  of  Pernambuco  are  foreigners,  who  are  not 
very  warmly  attached  to  the  government.  Frequent  emeutes  and  disturbances 
have  taken  place — one  occurring  as  late  as  January,  1849, — which  have  been 
with  difficulty  suppressed  by  the  government  troops. 


1839.]  TRADE    WITH    THE    UNITED    STATES.  57 

southern  provinces  of  Brazil.  The  most  important  seaport 
town  in  this  section  of  the  Empire,  is  Rio  Grande. 

To  the  United  States,  the  trade  of  Brazil  is  of  considera- 
ble moment,  as  a  ready  market  is  afforded  in  the  latter  for 
a  portion  of  our  surplus  agricultural  products  ;  but  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  she  is  the  greater  gainer  of  the  two, — 
since  our  imports  from  Brazil,  during  the  year  ending  in 
June,  1847,  amounted  to  over  seven  million  dollars,  while 
our  exports  were  a  little  short  of  three  millions. 

(11.)  In  consequence  of  the  unseaworthy  condition  of  the 
Peacock,  and  the  long  time  required  to  fit  her  for  continuing 
the  cruise,  the  squadron  was  detained  at  Rio  for  several 
weeks.  About  the  middle  of  December,  the  Relief  was 
lispatched  to  Orange  Harbor,  to  cut  wood  for  the  use  of  the 
other  vessels,  and  on  the  6th  of  January  following,  the 
remainder  of  the  fleet  dropped  down  the  harbor  of  Rio  and 
stood  out  to  sea,  directing  their  course  towards  the  same 
place  c\  destination. 

3* 


CHAPTER  III. 

(1.)  The  Pamperos.— (2.)  The  Rio  Negro.  Guachos.  El  Carmen.— (3.)  Buo- 
nos  Ayres.  Population  and  Resources.  Lagunas  de  Salinas. — (4.)  Indian 
Tribes.— (5.)  Alarm  at  El  Carmen.— (6.)  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Straits  of  Le 
Maire  and  Magellan.    Cape  Horn. — (7.)  Arrival  at  Orange  Harbor. 

(1.)  South  of  the  thirtieth  degree  of  north  latitude,  strong 
westerly  gales  prevail  for  a  greater  part  of  the  year,  which 
frequently  terminate  in  severe  pamperos,  or  hurricanes,  the 
effects  of  which  are  often  experienced  far  out  at  sea.  These 
are  supposed  to  be  occasioned  by  the  vast  llanos,  or  grassy 
plains,  in  the  valley  of  the  La  Plata,  which  disturb  the 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere.  The  currents  of  air  here 
collected,  being  walled  in  on  the  west  by  the  giant  barriers 
of  the  Andes,  and  finding  little  or  no  resistance  on  the  east, 
rush  forth  in  the  latter  direction,  either  skimming  softly  and 
gently  over  the  bosom  of  the  Atlantic,  or  plunging  and  dash- 
ing on  like  the  frightened  courser. 

(2.)  Favored  by  propitious,  though  light,  and  somewhat 
variable  winds,  the  Exploring  Squadron  held  on  their  way 
to  the  south.  On  the  25th  of  January,  1839,  they  again 
approachod  the  coast  of  South  America,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Negro,  the  southern  boundary  of  Buenos  Ayres,  or, 
as  it  is  now  called,  the  Argentine  Republic.  The  coast 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  river,  is  low  and  barren ;  consisting 
of  a  succession  of  sand  hills  and  downs  covered  with  a  dry 
and  sickly  vegetation,  where  the  stunted  shrubs  that  break 
the  monotony  of  the  landscape,  rarely  rise  to  the  dignity 
of  tree-hood, 

"  And  shrivelled  herbs  on  withering  stems  decay." 

Further  inland,  there  are  immense  pampas,  over  which  roam 


1839.]  guachos.  59 

countless  herds  of  horses  and  cattle.  The  inhabitants,  who 
are  principally  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  descent,  are 
employed,  for  the  most  part,  in  herding,  and  other  occupa- 
tions incident  thereto.  The  costume  of  the  guachos,  or 
herdsmen,  is  strikingly  picturesque  ;  and  it  is  shown  to  full 
advantage,  when  the  wearer  is  mounted,  with  the  knife  in 
his  girdle  and  the  lasso  at  his  saddle  bow,  pressing  forward 
in  hot  pursuit  after  the  lusty  bullock,  flying  for  dear  life, 
over  the  broad  grassy  plain.  It  usually  consists  of  a  red, 
or  party-colored  shirt,  striped  or  plaided ;  white,  Cossack 
drawers,  fringed  at  the  bottom  of  the  leg,  which  are  called 
calzoons,  or  calzoncillas  ;  wide,  loose  trowsers,  of  scarlet 
cloth ;  riding  boots,  fitting  tight  to  the  foot  and  leg,  of  un- 
tanned  horse  hide ;  a  gay  sash ;  and  a  conical  cap,  fiery  red, 
with  a  large  tassel  dangling  at  the  end.  Thus  arrayed,  with 
his  swart  countenance,  dark  rnustaehios,  and  keen  penetra- 
ting eyes,  the  guacho  is  either  formidable,  or  bizarre,  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  under  which  he  makes  his  first 
appearance  in  the  presence  of  a  stranger. 

Twenty  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro,  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  stream,  is  El  Carmen,  a  small  town 
containing  about  five  hundred  inhabitants.  This  is  a  convict 
settlement,  under  the  authority  of  a  governor  general,  and 
there  are  usually  two  or  three  hundred  soldiers  stationed 
here.  The  estancias,  or  residences,  of  the  better  and  more 
prosperous  inhabitants,  consist  of  a  dwelling  house  made  of 
adobe  bricks,*  divided  into  two  or  three  compartments,  with- 
out floor,  ceiling,  inner  doors,  or  furniture,  except  a  few 
rough  benches  and  stools ;  outhouses  for  the  horses  and 
slaves,  also  built  of  adobes ;  and  a  caral  for  the  cattle — a 
circular  inclosure  surrounded  by  a  palisade  fenca,  constructed 
of  poles  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  high.  The  converted  Indians,  who  collect  around 
the  white  settlements,  and  are  called  Indios  Mansos,  live  in 
rudely  fashioned  huts,  or  toldos. 

Including  the   population  of  El   Carmen,  there  are  not 

*  Bricks  baked  in  the  sun. 


60  BUENOS    AY  RES.  [1839. 

far  from  three  thousand  inhabitants  embraced  within  the 
limits  of  the  settlement  on  the  Rio  Negro.  The  river  is  only 
one  third  of  a  mile  wide,  but  it  is  navigable  for  boats  to  Chi- 
cula,  two  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth. 

(3.)  When  Buenos  Ayres  first  achieved  her  independence, 
she  was  connected  with  Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  and  the 
confederation  assumed  the  name  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
South  America,  afterwards  changed  to  United  Provinces 
of  La  Plata.  Difficulties  and  contentions,  artfully  promoted 
by  the  government  of  Brazil,  followed  the  separation  from 
the  mother  country ;  and  after  a  severe  and  bloody  struggle,  in 
1813,  Paraguay  became  independent  of  the  confederacy,  and 
established  a  distinct  government.  Shortly  after  this,  Brazil 
laid  claim  to  Uruguay  ;  another  fierce  and  protracted  contest 
ensued,  which  was  finally  terminated,  in  1828,  by  the  erec- 
tion of  the  disputed  territory  into  an  independent  state. 
Since  that  time,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  confederacy  has 
been  known  as  Buenos  Ayres,  and,  latterly,  as  the  Argentine 
Republic*  Harmony  and  tranquillity,  however,  have  not 
generally  prevailed  in  the  country.  Internal  dissensions 
have  been  fomented  by  the  intrigues  of  Brazil  and  the  mo- 
narchical governments  of  Europe;  and  international  difficul- 
ties have  been  occasioned  by  the  attempt  of  Buenos  Ayres 
to  enforce  her  right  to  the  sole  navigation  of  the  La  Plata — 
a  right  which  would  probably  have  never  been  invaded,  or 
questioned,  had  she  been  as  great  and  powerful,  as  she  is 
weak  and  humble.  England,  France,  and  Brazil,  have 
united  to  oppress  her  ;  and  at  the  time  of  the  visit  of  the  Ex- 
ploring Squadron,  her  ports  were  blockaded  by  a  French  fleet. 

Buenos  Ayres  contains  about  two  million  inhabitants,  scat- 
tered over  a  territory  nine  hundred  thousand  square  miles 
in  extent.  Its  capital  is  Buenos  Ayres,  which  contains  near 
eighty  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  pleasantly  situated  on 

*  The  term  Argentine  Republic,  (silver  republic,)  was,  no  doubt,  adopted  as 
being  expressive  of  the  mineral  character  of  the  soil;  but  it  is  hardly  more  ap- 
propriate, and  is  certainly  less  beautiful,  than  the  former  name  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
^pleasant  breezes.) 


1839.]  CLIMATE    AND    PRODUCTS.  61 

the  southern  shore  of  the  majestic  Rio  de  la  Plata — the  river 
of  silver.  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  the  style  of  building,  do  not  differ  very  essentially  from 
those  at  Rio  Janeiro.  In  the  interior,  there  are  several  other 
towns  of  importance.  Mendoza,  containing  twenty  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  San  Juan,  about  one  third  smaller,  are  sit- 
uated near  the  great  passes  through  the  Andes.  Cordova 
and  Tucuman  are  important  trading  towns,  and  Salta,  on  the 
Rio  Salado  is  a  celebrated  market  for  mules. 

The  climate  of  the  country  is  delightful ;  the  heavens  are 
serene  ;  the  atmosphere  is  soft  and  refreshing,  and  remark- 
able for  its  transparent  purity.  In  the  southern  provinces 
the  air  is  so  dry  and  pure,  at  certain  seasons,  that  fresh  meat 
will  keep  for  a  long  time  without  becoming  tainted. 

Grain,  fruit  and  vegetables,  are  raised  with  comparatively 
little  labor,  and  the  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  narrow  strip  of  sandy  barren  land  along  the  coast, 
like  that  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro.  But  the  inhabi- 
tants seem  generally  disinclined  to  till  the  ground,  and  their 
whole  time  and  attention  are  directed  to  raising  horses, 
mules  and  cattle.  Of  these  they  have  the  finest  breeds  in 
South  America,  and  the  mules  exhibited  every  year  at  Salta, 
are  unsurpassed  in  the  world.  The  prices  are  quite  moderate. 
Bullocks  are  sold  at  from  five  to  ten  dollars  per  head,  accord- 
ing to  age ;  and  horses  and  mules,  when  broken  to  the  saddle, 
at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars.  Buenos  Ayres  is  not  de- 
ficient in  mineral  stores  ;  she  has  valuable  mines  of  gold  and 
silver  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  from  which  over 
four  million  pounds  sterling  of  the  former  metal,  and  twenty- 
seven  millions  of  the  latter,  were  obtained,  from  1790  to 
1830 ;  but,  after  all,  the  real,  substantial  wealth  of  the 
country,  consists  in  the  flocks  and  herds  that  feed  upon  the 
broad  plains  irrigated  by  the  tributaries  of  the  La  Plata. 
Numbers  of  horses  and  mules  are  driven  over  the  mountains 
to  Chili,  and  quantities  of  hides,  beef,  tallow,  horns  and 
bones,  are  annually  exported. 

Salt  is  also  an  important  product.     North  of  the  Colorado; 


62  LAGUNAS    DE    SALINAS.  [1839 

and  between  that  river  and  the  Rio  Negro,  there  are  numer- 
ous salt  lakes — lagunas  de  salinas — upon  which  the  salt 
collects  in  incrustations.  It  is  obtained  in  great  quantities 
after  a  severe  rain,  when  the  soil,  which  seems  to  be  highly 
impregnated,  has  been  the  most  thoroughly  disturbed.  The 
water  soon  evaporates,  and  the  white  salt,  perfectly  pure, 
and  finely  crystallized,  appears  in  its  stead.  It  is  sold  on 
the  Colorado  and  Rio  Negro,  for  twenty  cents  per  bushel. 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  Paraguay,  a  small  plant  is  found, 
called  matte,  which  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Paraguay  tea.  Sarsaparilla  and  vanilla 
likewise  abound  in  the  country. 

Most  of  the  animals  seen  in  Brazil  exist  in  Buenos  Ayres. 
There  are  deer  in  abundance,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  salt 
lakes ;  ostriches  are  quite  common  on  the  prairies ;  tapirs, 
cabials,  and  other  species  of  the  cavy  genus,  frequent  the 
grassy  hummocks  on  the  banks  of  the  streams  ;  and  ducks, 
partridges,  pheasants,  cassowaries,  and  wild  geese,  gratify, 
alike,  the  ambition  of  the  sportsman,  and  the  appetite  of  the 
epicure.  The  guanaco,  an  animal  belonging  to  the  same 
genus  with  the  llama,  is  also  frequently  seen ;  and  in  the 
northern  section  of  the  country  there  is  a  very  pretty  species 
of  hare,  called  tapeti.  Porcupines  and  armadillos  a."  found 
in  every  thicket. 

(4.)  Ever  since  the  first  settlement  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the 
white  population  have  been  more  or  less  annoyed  by  the 
savage  Indian  tribes  of  the  interior, — the  off-shoots  of  the 
great  Araucanian  family,  whose  descendants  still  occupy  the 
southern  part  of  Chili.  North  of  the  Colorado  are  the  Ran- 
gueles  Indians  ;  between  that  river  and  the  Rio  Negro,  are 
the  Pehuenches  ;  and  on  its  southern  bank  are  the  Tehuili- 
ches,  or  Patagonians,  who  are  said,  though  on  doubtful  au- 
thority, to  be  of  gigantic  stature,  but  mild  and  inoffensive  in 
their  dispositions.  The  most  formidable  enemies  of  the 
whites,  are  the  Chilenos  Indians,  who  inhabit  the  mountain 
fastnesses  separating  Chili  from  the  pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres.     The  usual  weapons  of  the  Indians  are  a  long  lance, 


1839.]  ALARM    AT    EL    CARMEN.  63 

and  the  btilas,  or  balls ;  the  latter  consisting  cf  two  leaden 
balls  attached  to  either  end  of  a  stout  strip  of  hide,  four  feet 
loDg ;  this  is  grasped  in  the  middle,  whirled  over  the  head  a 
few  times,  and  then  thrown  with  astonishing  velocity  and 
precision.  It  rarely  fails  to  disable  the  object  aimed  at,  be  it 
man  or  beast. 

(5.)  Upon  the  appearance  of  the  Exploring  Squadron  off 
the  coast,  the  inhabitants  living  on  the  Rio  Negro,  fancying 
the  French  fleet  was  approaching  to  despoil  them,  became 
much  alarmed,  and  having  hastily  collected  their  cattle,  fled 
with  them  into  the  interior.  The  first  party  that  landed 
found  the  estancias  deserted,  and  the  fires  smoldering  on 
the  rude  hearth  stones.  The  mistake  was  soon  discovered, 
however,  and  the  people  gradually  ventured  forth  from  their 
places  of  concealment.  Partial  observations  and  surveys 
were  made,  in  order  to  prepare  a  correct  chart  of  the  river — a 
work  subsequently  completed  by  Lieutenant  Alden — and  on 
the  3d  of  February  the  squadron  again  got  under  way,  and 
proceeded  on  their  voyage. 

(6.)  As  they  approached  the  southern  extremity  of  the  con- 
tinent, flocks  of  speckled  haglets,  or  cape  pigeons,  and  alba- 
trosses, were  occasionally  seen ;  the  moon  began  to  wear 
round  further  to  the  north,  and  the  nights  were  rendered 
gloomy  by  the  lengthening  shadows  which  it  cast.  On  the 
12th  of  February,  the  barometer  fell  rapidly,  and  heavy 
squalls  of  rain,  mingled  with  hail  and  sleet,  followed.  When 
the  day  broke  on  the  morning  of  the  13th,  and  the  dense 
mists  that  curtained  the  sky  had  lifted  sufficiently  to  enable 
objects  to  be  distinguished,  the  gray  cliffs  of  Staten  Land 
were  discovered;  and,  not  long  after,  the  barren  rocks,  and 
snow-clad  mountain  peaks,  of  Tierra  del  Fuego — the  land  of 
fire — loomed  above  the  horizon,  dark,  bleak  and  desolate, 
and  showing  no  signs  of  vegetation,  except,  here  and  there,  a 
stunted  shrub  or  tree. 

The  coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  may  well  be  called  iron- 
bound.  It  is  composed  of  huge  masses  of  trap  rock, 
traversed  by  red  veins,  indicating  its  volcanic  origin,  which 


64  TIERRA    DEL    FUEGO.  [1839. 

rise  abruptly  to  the  height  of  one  thousand  or  fifteen  hundred 
feet.  Inland,  there  are  mountains,  many  of  them  of  a  con- 
ical shape,  from  four  to  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Tall  isolated  rocks,  detached  from  the  main  shore,  are 
scattered  along  the  coast,  like  giant  sentinels  on  guard. 
Numerous  ravines  intersect  the  wall  of  rocks  behind  them, 
where  the  fierce  blasts  of  the  stormy  Atlantic  die  away  in 
echoes,  or  howl  the  requiem  of  some  gallant  ship  stranded 
amid  its  foaming  breakers.  Even  during  the  midsummer 
months  of  this  climate — January  and  February — the  moun- 
tains do  not  put  off  their  mantle  of  snow ;  but  ever  wear 
the  same  cold  and  cheerless  appearance. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  is  separated  from  Patagonia  on  the 
north,  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  named  after  the  Portu- 
guese navigator  who  discovered  them.  Vessels  bound  to  the 
Pacific  can  pass  through  the  straits  without  difficulty,  if 
attended  with  favorable  winds ;  but,  as  there  is  a  strong 
current  setting  in  from  the  Atlantic,  it  is  hazardous  to 
attempt  the  passage,  from  the  east,  in  a  square  rigged  craft, 
— though  with  steam  vessels,  or  small  fore-and-afters,  there 
is  much  less  danger.  Coming  from  the  west,  the  passage 
may  be  made  with  ease,  and  it  is  infinitely  less  hazardous 
than  to  encounter  the  squalls,  "  catpaws,"  and  icebergs, 
which  are  the  common  accompaniments  of  a  voyage  around 
the  cape. 

Between  Staten  Land  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  are  the 
Straits  of  Le  Maire,  which  are  about  fifteen  miles  wide,  and 
something  less  than  that  in  length.  As  a  general  thing,  it  is 
always  best  for  a  vessel  intending  to  double  the  cape,  to  pass 
through  these  straits ;  it  shortens  the  distance  considerably, 
and  on  all  ordinary  occasions  there  is  not  the  least  danger. 
Violent  squalls  sometimes  issue  from  the  ravines,  but  it  is 
easy  to  guard  against  them.  Northwest  winds  prevail  off 
this  coast,  and  with  these  the  straits  may  be  threaded  in 
three  or  four  hours.  This  was  the  route  taken  by  the 
Exploring   Squadron ;   they  passed   through  the   straits  on 


1839.]  CAPE    HORN.  65 

the  13th  of  February,  with  all  their  canvas  spread.  It  was 
a  beautiful  day,  and  the  weather  continued  favorable  till 
they  reached  the  cape.  # 

"  Be  it  fair  or  foul,  rain  or  shine ;" — 

in  all  weathers,  at  all  times  and  seasons,  Cape  Horn  is  a 
terror  to  the  mariner ;  and  many  and  marvellous  are  the 
tales  of  peril  and  danger  spun  in  the  forecastle,  as  this 
dreaded  promontory  is  approached,  and  the  hoarse  wail  of 
the  beating  surf  that  spends  its  fury  upon  its  rocky  sides,  is 
heard  rising  over  the  waters.  In  favorable  weather,  vessels 
sail  within  a  short  distance  of  it,  in  perfect  safety  ;  but  when 
the  storm-king  "holds  high  revel  there,"  as  wide  a  berth  as 
possible  is  given  to  this  formidable  breakwater  which  nature 
has  reared  against  the  fury  of  the  Atlantic* 

The  cape  is  situated  in  latitude  55°  58'  south.  It  is 
a  conical,  jagged  peak,  of  trachytic  rock,  rising  at  the 
southern  end  of  Hermit  Island.  The  latter  is  two  or  three 
miles  in  length,  and  behind  it  there  is  a  line  of  rocks  extend- 
ing towards  the  north.  Between  it  and  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
there  are  several  long,  high,  and  narrow  islands,  which  are 
covered  with  snow  during  the  whole  year.  Cape  Horn,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  southernmost  land  in  this  quarter.  The 
Diego  Ramirez  Islands,  a  small  cluster  of  sea-holms,  on  one 
of  which  is  False  Cape  Horn,  are  34'  further  south. 

(7.)  On  the  16th  of  February,  the  Squadron  passed  the 
"  stormy  cape,"  within  a  few  miles  of  the  shore ; — most  of 
the  vessels  having  their  studding  sails  set  on  both  sides — 
and  were  soon  lifted  upon  the  long  rolling  swell  of  the 
Pacific — "  the  summer  sea."  The  17th  was  cloudy  and 
nearly  calm ;  and  the  day  and  night  following  were  spent  in 
beating  through  the  passage  between  Hermit  Island  and 
False  Cape  Horn,  and  from  thence   into   Nassau  Bay,  an 

*  Vessels  are  often  compelled  to  go  as  high  as  the  sixtieth  degree  of  southern 
latitude,  in  order  to  double  the  cape. 


66  ARRIVAL    AT    ORANGE    HARBOR.  [1839. 

indentation  of  the  southern  coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 
Early  in  the  morning  of  the  18th  instant,  the  Squadron 
came  to  anchor  in  Orange  Harbor,  on  the  western  side  of  the 
bay,  but  separated  from  it  by  Burnt  Island,  where  they 
found  the  Relief  had  arrived  before  them. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

(1.)  The  Relief.— (2.)  Patagonia.  Soil  and  Climate.— (3.)  Inhabitants.  Mode 
of  Life  and  Occupations.  Weapons. — (4.)  Natives  at  Good  Success  Bay. — 
(5.)  Orange  Harbor.  Visit  from  the  Natives. — (6.)  Tierra  del  Puego.  De- 
scription of  the  Country,  and  Products.— (7.)  Animals  and  Birds.— (8.)  The 
Fuegians.  Dress  and  Appearance.  Degraded  Condition. — (9.)  Southern 
Cruise. — (10.)  Arrival  of  the  Squadron  at  Valparaiso. 

(1.)  After  leaving  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Captain  Long  proceeded 
with  the  Relief  to  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  where,  in  accord- 
ance with  his  instructions,  he  commenced  running  a  line  of 
soundings,  and  making  examinations  of  the  shoals  said  to  exist 
in  that  quarter. 

Like  that  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  Patagonian  coast  is 
bold  and  rocky,  but  indented  with  frequent  small  bays  or 
harbors,  which  are  scantily  protected,  however,  against  the 
violence  of  the  winds  and  waves.  The  Relief  drew  in  to- 
wards the  land  several  times,  sufficiently  near  to  discover  the 
herds  of  guanacoes  feeding  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  and  on 
two  occasions  came  to  anchor  ;  but  it  was  deemed  hazardous 
to  remain  so  near  the  shore,  and  she  accordingly  hauled  off 
where  she  would  be  sure  of  a  wider  berth  in  the  event  of  a 
storm. 

(2.)  Patagonia  was  discovered  by  Magellan  in  1519.  On 
account  of  the  insecurity  of  its  harbors,  and  their  being  so 
difficult  and  dangerous  of  access,  no  permanent  white  settle- 
ment has  yet  been  formed  in  the  country.  About  the  year 
1779,  a  party  of  Spaniards  established  themselves  at  Port 
St.  Julian,  in  latitude  49°  10'  S.,  and  longitude  67°  40'  W., 
but  the  attempt  to  colonize  this  inhospitable  region  was  speed- 
ily abandoned.  A  few  expeditions  have  been  undertaken 
into  the  interior,  yet  very  little  is  known,  beyond  the  coast 


68  PATAGONIA.  [1839 

outline,  in  regard  to  it.  The  Andes  here  consist  of  but  one 
cordillera,  the  mean  height  of  which  is  estimated  at  three 
thousand  feet,  although  there  are  many  peaks  opposite  the 
Archipelago  of  Chiloe,  from  five  to  six  thousand  feet  high. 
This  mountain  range  divides  the  country  into  two  unequal 
parts  ;  the  larger  of  them,  by  far,  lying  on  the  East.  The 
western  coast  is  extremely  abrupt  and  precipitous,  and  is 
skirted  with  numerous  irregularly  shaped  and  rocky  islands. 
On  the  East,  the  surface  of  the  country  rises  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Andes,  in  a  succession  of  terraces,  all  of  which 
are  arid  and  sterile ;  the  upper  soil  being  chiefly  composed  of 
marine  gravelly  deposits.  On  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  herb- 
age and  trees  are  occasionally  found,  but  with  this  exception, 
these  terraces  produce  nothing  but  a  coarse  wiry  grass,  and 
a  small  thorny  shrub  fit  only  for  fuel.  The  general  sterility 
of  East  Patagonia  is  probably  occasioned  by  the  westerly 
winds  that  prevail  throughout  most  of  the  year ;  the  moisture 
which  they  bring  with  them  from  the  Pacific,  is  condensed 
and  precipitated  in  the  mountains  and  their  immediate  vi- 
cinity, and  they  consequently  become  quite  dry.  Almost  the 
only  moisture,  therefore,  that  is  brought  to  this  desert  tract, 
comes  with  the  easterly  winds,  which  are  very  rare.  Near 
the  Andes,  however,  where  the  grateful  moisture  of  the  wes- 
terly winds  is  precipitated,  wheat,  maize,  beans,  lentils, 
pease,  and  other  similar  grains  and  vegetables,  are  raised. 

The  most  prevalent  mineral  formations  of  East  Patagonia, 
are  porphyry,  basalt,  sandstone,  and  a  friable  rock  resembling 
chalk.  Organic  remains  are  found  of  different  kinds,  and  in 
great  numbers.  There  is  an  abundance  of  rodent  mammals 
in  the  country,  but  there  are  few  varieties  of  larger  animals. 
Guanacoes  are  the  most  common,  and  are  frequently  seen  in 
droves  numbering  several  hundred.  The  puma,  the  inveter- 
ate enemy  of  the  guanaco,  and  the  fox,  are  the  only  other 
wild  quadrupeds  worthy  of  mention.  The  principal  birds 
are  the  condor,  the  cassowary,  and  the  rhea,  or  South  Amer- 
ican ostrich. 

(3.)  Until  of  late  years,  it  was  pretty  generally  supposed 


1839.]  ITS    INHABITANTS.  69 

that  the  Patagonian  Indians  were  absolute  giants.  The  ex- 
aminations made  by  recent  navigators  have  shown  this  im- 
pression to  be  entirely  erroneous*  ;  yet  they  are  undoubtedly 
the  tallest  people  of  whom  we  have  any  account,  since  the 
average  height  of  the  men  is  full  six  feet.  Their  heads  and 
features  are  large,  but  their  hands  and  feet  are  small,  and 
they  have  less  muscular  strength  than  their  size  would  indi- 
cate. Their  dress  adds  much  to  the  bulkiness  of  their  ap- 
pearance ; — it  consists  of  a  large  mantle  of  guanaco  skins 
loosely  gathered  about  the  person,  which  it  completely  en- 
velopes, hanging  from  the  shoulders  to  the  ankles  ;  and  a  kind 
of  drawers,  or  loose  buskins,  usually  made  of  the  same  ma- 
terial. Their  complexions  are  a  dark  copper  color ;  their 
hair  is  long,  black,  and  coarse,  and  tied  above  the  temples  by 
a  fillet  of  braided  or  twisted  sinews.  Their  foreheads  are 
low,  and  their  cheek-bones  prominent.  They  are  fond  of  dis- 
figuring their  faces,  and  other  parts  of  their  bodies,  with 
paint ;  and  those  who  live  remote  from  the  white  settlements 
in  Chili  and  on  the  Rio  Negro,  besmear  themselves  with  clay, 
coal,  and  soot. 

The  Patagonians  live  in  tents  formed  of  poles  and  skins. 
They  lead  a  nomadic  life  and  subsist  mainly  on  the  flesh  of 
wild  animals  and  birds.  In  the  northern  part  of  East  Pata- 
gonia, the  inhabitants  procure  wild  horses  on  the  pampas, 
which,  when  tamed,  are  ridden  by  both  men  and  women. 
Saddles,  bridles,  and  similar  accoutrements,  as  well  as  Span- 
ish goods  of  various  kinds,  are  obtained  from  Valdivia  and 
other  places  in  South  Chili.  The  arms  of  the  Patagonian 
are  a  long  tapering  lance,  a  knife,  and  the  bolas,  which  con- 
sist among  them  of  two  round  stones,  weighing  about  a  pound 
each,  covered  with  leather,  and  attached  to  the  thong  or  cord. 
So  expert  are  the  natives  in  the  use  of  this  double-headed 
shot,  which,  in  its  use  and  effects,  resembles  the  ancient 
sling,  that  they  will  hit  a  mark  of  the  size  of  an  English 

*  This  idea  originated  with  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  who  first  visited  the 
country,  and  was  probably  based  on  a  comparison  of  their  diminutive  proportions 
with  the  tall  and  bulky  forms  of  the  natives. 


70  INTERVIEW   WITH    THE    NATIVES.  [1839 

shilling,  with  both  stones,  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  yards.     It 
is  not  customary  to  strike  the  guanaco  or  ostrich  with  them, 
but  they  are  thrown  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cord  is  twisted 
about  the  legs  of  the  animal  or  bird,  so  as  to  prevent  its  run 
ning  away. 

As  may  well  be  presumed,  there  is  little  semblance  of  law 
or  authority  among  the  Patagonian  Indians.  They  nominally 
live  under  various  petty  chiefs,  but  the  latter  in  reality  pos- 
sess no  power  except  that  of  might,  and,  in  point  of  fact, 
every  individual  is  his  own  master. 

(4.)  In  passing  through  the  straits  of  Le  Maire,  Captain 
Long  visited  most  of  the  harbors,  and  nearly  two  days  were 
spent  in  Good  Success  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
the  best  and  largest,  of  them  all.  While  here,  Captain  Long, 
accompanied  by  several  officers,  went  ashore  in  three  armed 
boats,  to  hold  communication  with  a  party  of  natives,  who 
invited  them  to  land  by  their  cries  and  gestures.  The  natives 
appeared  friendly,  and  when  the  captain  and  his  men  landed, 
they  ran  towards  them,  crying  out,  at  the  same  time, — 
"  cuchillo !  cuchillo  /"  As  this  is  the  Spanish  word  for 
knife,  it  was  thought  they  were  begging  to  be  supplied  with 
that  article  ;  but  as  they  seemed  to  apply  the  term  to  every- 
thing shown  them,  or  rather  continued  its  repetition  almost 
incessantly,  it  was  found  impossible  to  ascertain  its  real 
meaning  or  application.  In  their  dress  and  physiognomy 
they  resembled  the  Patagonians,  and  were  supposed  to  belong 
on  the  other  side  of  the  straits  of  Magellan  ;  they  wore 
guanaco  skins  over  their  shoulders,  and  fillets  were  bound 
around  their  heads.  Some  members  of  the  party  had  san- 
dals, also  made  of  the  guanaco  skin,  on  one  foot.  They  were 
provided  with  bows  and  arrows, — the  latter  having  flint 
heads;  but  they  seemed  to -depend  principally  on  fish  for 
subsistence.  All  were  exceedingly  dirty,  though  well  formed, 
and  most  of  them  were  troubled  with  a  disease  of  the  eye, — 
occasioned,  perhaps,  by  the  dazzling  reflection  from  the  snow 
during  their  long  winters. 

It  was  evident  that  they  had  had  intercourse  before  with 


1839.]  ARRIVAL    AT    ORANGE    HARBOR.  71 

the  sailors  of  civilized  nations,  as  many  manufactured  arti- 
cles, which  they  could  have  obtained  in  no  other  way,  were 
found  in  their  possession,  and  the  report  of  fire-arms  did  not 
intimidate  them  in  the  least.  The  hair  on  the  tops  of  their 
heads  was  cut  short,  and  their  faces  were  painted  with  a 
kind  of  clay,  like  red  ochre.  They  were  particularly  well 
pleased  with  a  looking  glass  and  a  string  of  glass  beads 
which  were  shown  them.  Although  they  attached  great 
value  to  their  bows  and  arrows,  they  were  willing  to  ex- 
change them  for  a  piece  of  iron  hoop  or  a  few  rusty  nails. 

From  Good  Success  Bay  the  Relief  continued  her  course 
towards  Orange  Harbor.  On  the  way,  she  touched  at  New 
Island ;  no  natives  were  seen  here,  but  there  were  indications 
of  their  having  recently  been  on  the  island.  On  the  30th  of 
January,  Captain  Long  cast  anchor  in  Nassau  Bay,  and  sub- 
sequently entered  Orange  Harbor.  Immediately  after  he  got 
his  anchor  down  in  the  bay,  a  native  canoe  came  alongside, 
— in  which  were  three  men,  one  woman,  and  a  child.  Two 
of  the  men  came  on  board  without  hesitation.  They  were 
found  to  differ  in  many  respects  from  those  seen  at  Good 
Success  Bay.  They  did  not  speak  the  same  language;  they 
were  not  so  tall  in  stature,  nor  so  well-proportioned ;  and 
they  were  far  more  filthy  and  disgusting  in  their  appearance. 

(5.)  Orange  Harbor  is  decidedly  the  safest,  and  the  most 
spacious  and  convenient  of  all  the  harbors  on  the  Fuegian 
coast.  Captain  Cook  anchored  and  refitted  here  previous  to 
his  Antarctic  cruise,  as  did  also  Captains  King  and  Fitzroy 
while  engaged  in  their  expeditions.  It  is  surrounded  by  lofty 
hills,  intersected  with  numerous  small  inlets  or  coves,  in 
which  boats  can  enter  and  obtain  wood  and  water,  which  are 
both  abundant  and  of  excellent  quality. 

Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  squadron  at  Orange  Har- 
bor, they  were  visited  by  the  natives, — a  most  abject,  ill- 
shapen,  and  miserable  race  of  beings.  On  one  occasion,  a 
party  consisting  of  five  men  and  one  woman, — the  latter  old 
and  ugly,  but  as  strong  and  muscular  as  those  of  the  other 
sex, — approached  one  of  the  vessels  in  a  frail  and   leaky 


72  TIERRA   DEL    FUEGO.  [1839. 

canoe  which  required  constant  bailing  to  keep  it  afloat.  But 
one  of  the  number — a  young  man  not  far  from  nineteen 
years  of  age — could  be  induced  to  come  on  board.  They 
brought  with  them  a  number  of  spears,  and  a  necklace  of 
shells,  which  they  exchanged  for  pieces  of  cotton  and  an  iron 
hoop.  In  dress,  language  and  appearance,  they  resembled 
those  at  Nassau  Bay.  They  were  highly  delighted  with 
music,  and  fond  of  mimicking  everything  they  heard  ;  the 
flute  and  guitar  were  played  for  their  amusement,  and  they 
endeavored  to  imitate  the  accompanying  songs. 

(6.)  Tierra  del  Fuego  properly  includes  the  group  of 
islands  lying  off  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America, 
and  separated  from  it  by  the  straits  of  Magellan ;  but  the 
term  is  usually  applied,  by  way  of  distinction,  to  the  largest, 
or  main  island,  formerly  called  King  Charles'  South  Land. 
The  eastern  part  of  this  island  is  low,  with  sloping  plains 
like  those  of  Patagonia,  though  there  is  really  no  level  land. 
On  the  west  side  it  is  traversed,  from  north  to  south,  by  a 
chain  of  mountains  four  thousand  feet  high.  The  island  is 
all  mountainous,  and  appears  to  have  been  partially  sub- 
merged in  the  sea  by  some  convulsion  of  nature, — by  which 
so  many  inlets  and  bays  are  occasioned  where  valleys  would 
otherwise  have  been.  The  surface  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  is 
covered  with  a  thick  bed  of  swampy  peat.  On  the  mountain 
sides,  reaching  up  to  an  elevation  of  twelve  hundred  feet, 
there  are  dense  forests ;  the  trees  rise  uniformly  to  the  height 
of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and  generally  incline  towards  the  north- 
east, in  consequence  of  the  prevailing  southwestern  winds. 

The  principal  trees  are  beech,  birch  and  willow.  One 
species  of  birch,  the  betula  antarctica,  has  a  stem  from  thirty 
to  forty-six  inches  in  diameter.  Winter's  bark,  (drymis 
winteri)  first  introduced  as  a  medicine  in  1579,  was  origi- 
nally discovered  here.  In  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  hornblende  is  the  most  common  rock,  but  slate  is 
abundant.  Lava  and  other  volcanic  products  were  discov- 
ered by  Captain  King,  but  nothing  of  the  kind  was  found 
during  the  limited,  and  necessarily  imperfect,  reconnaissances 


839.]  THE    FUEGIANS.  73 

of  the  American  Exploring  Squadron.  The  line  of  perpetual! 
snow  descends  as  low  as  three  thousand  feet ;  yet,  notwith- 
standing the  unfriendliness  of  the  climate,  the  scenery  of  the 
island  is  in  many  respects  grand  and  imposing.  "  There  is 
a  degree  of  mysterious  grandeur,"  says  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his 
Journal  of  a  Voyage  round  the  World,"  in  mountain  behind 
mountain,  with  the  deep  intervening  valleys,  all  covered  by 
one  thick,  dusky  mass  of  forest.  The  atmosphere,  likewise, 
in  this  climate,  where  gale  succeeds  gale,  with  rain,  hail,  and 
sleet,  seems  blacker  than  anywhere  else.  In  the  Strait  of 
Magellan,  looking  due  southward  from  Port  Famine,  the 
distant  channels  between  the  mountains  appeared  from  their 
gloominess  to  lead  beyond  the  confines  of  this  world." 

(7.)  Guanacoes,  wolves,  foxes  and  otters,  are  the  only  wild 
animals  of  importance  found  in  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Fish  and 
seals  are  quite  numerous.  Among  the  birds  are  the  cape 
pigeon,  the  petrel,  and  the  albatross.  Wild  fowl,  geese, 
ducks,  and  plover,  are  also  plenty.  The  cape  pigeons  are  of 
a  white  and  lead  color  ;  they  fly  in  large  flocks,  and  seem 
much  attached  to  each  other  ;  their  flesh  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  American  teal.  The  albatross  resembles  a  goose,  and  its 
feathers,  down,  and  quills,  are  equally  valuable  ;  its  meat  is 
dark-colored  but  not  unpalatable ;  by  sailors,  it  is  considered 
as  a  rara  avis,  indeed,  from  the  fact  that  it  has  no  gizzard, 
— and  many  of  them  look  upon  it  with  the  same  abhorrence 
with  which  the  Mussulman  regards  pork. 

(8.)  The  Fuegians  are  elevated  by  only  a  few  degrees 
above  the  brute  creation.  They  have  small  low  foreheads, 
prominent  brows,  diminutive  eyes,  large  mouths,  wide  nos- 
trils, thick  lips,  black  lank  hair,  and  long  and  slender  arms. 
Their  bodies  are  large  in  comparison  with  their  extremities, 
but  they  are  rarely  over  five  feet  in  height.  On  the  eastern 
coast,  the  natives  wear  guanaco  skins,  and  on  the  western, 
seal  skins.  The  central  tribes  have  otter  skins.  Sometimes 
a  small  scrap  takes  the  place  of  a  whole  skin,  and  where  this 
is  the  case,  or  the  skin  is  too  small  to  protect  the  whole  per- 
son, it  is  laced  across  the  breast  by  strings,  and  shifted  from 

4 


74  MODE    OF    LIFE.  [1839. 

side  to  side,  according  as  the  wind  blows.  It  is  by  no  means 
uncommon,  however,  to  see  them  entirely  naked.  They  ap- 
pear stunted  in  their  growth  ;  their  dark  copper  colored  skins 
are  filthy  and  greasy  ;  and  their  hideous  faces  are  generally 
bedaubed  with  ashes  or  paint.  Their  voices  are  discordant, 
and  their  gestures,  in  conversation,  animated  and  even  vio- 
lent. 

Their  wigwams  are  sometimes  built  of  the  trunks  of  trees, 
arranged  in  a  circle  and  leaning  against  each  other  at  the 
top,  like  a  cone  ;  the  interstices  are  chinked  in  with  earth, 
leaves,  and  wild  grass.  Another  kind  of  wigwam  is  made 
ot  boughs  or  small  branches  bound  together  at  the  top  with 
sedge  or  twigs  ;  other  branches  are  interlaced  with  these  so 
as  to  form  wicker-work,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  grass, 
peat  or  bark.  They  subsist  almost  wholly  on  fish,  seals,  sea- 
eggs,  and  testacea.  A  few  tasteless  berries  and  fungi  are  the 
only  productions  of  the  moist  soil  which  they  make  use  of  to 
satisfy  hunger.  The  only  habitable  land  is  directly  on  the 
coast,  and  in  summer  and  winter,  through  the  endless  mists 
and  storms,  parties  of  them  may  be  seen  wandering  along  the 
beach  in  quest  of  food.  Their  only  mode  of  conveyance  is  a 
canoe  drawn  through  the  water  by  the  kelp,  or  propelled  by 
a  rude  paddle ;  it  is  made  of  strips  of  bark  sewed  together, 
and  is  usually  about  twenty-five  feet  long  and  three  feet 
wide.  The  bottom  of  the  canoe  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
clay  a  foot  thick,  on  which  a  fire  is  always  kept  burning. 
Sea-eggs  are  obtained  by  diving,  and  small  fish  are  caught 
by  a  baited  hair-line,  without  any  hook.  Larger  fish  are 
speared.  Shell-fish  are  picked  from  the  rocks  whenever  it  is 
low  water,  be  it  night  or  day,  in  storm  or  sunshine. 

Seasons  of  famine  are  frequent  among  the  Fuegians,  and 
at  such  times  they  often  kill  and  eat  the  old  women,  before 
they  devour  their  dogs.  They  are  divided  into  different 
tribes,  and  when  at  war  they  are  also  cannibals.  It  is  rarely 
the  case  that  they  object  to  any  kind  of  food  ;  and  if  the  car- 
cass of  a  putrid  whale  is  discovered,  it  is  hailed  as  a  special 
blessing.     Traces  of  superstition  exist  among  them,  and  each 


1839.J  SOUTHERN   CRUISE.  75 

tribe  has  a  conjuring  doctor ;  yet  it  has  been  found  impossi- 
ble clearly  to  ascertain  his  duties.  They  exhibit  a  dread  of 
some  mysterious  and  invisible  superior  powers,  but  have  no 
definite  idea  of  a  future  life.  Bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  the  bolas  of  the  Patago- 
nians,  are  their  only  weapons.  The  arrow  and  spear  heads 
are  made  of  bone,  or  iron  where  it  can  be  procured.  The 
different  tribes  have  no  particular  head  or  chief,  nor  any  form 
of  government ;  but  they  speak  different  dialects — all  of 
which  have  many  affinities  with  the  Araucanian — and  reside 
in  different  districts. 

For  three  hundred  years,  notwithstanding  they  have  been 
frequently  visited  by  navigators  and  the  crews  of  whalers  and 
sealing  vessels,  the  Fuegians  have  made  little  or  no  advance 
in  intelligence.  According  to  Drake,  they  travelled  in  the 
same  canoe,  and  slept  in  the  same  wigwam,  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago,  which  they  now  do.  In  some  respects 
they  are  even  more  sunken  and  degraded  than  the  Aus- 
tralians, who  have  generally  been  considered  the  lowest  in 
the  scale  of  humanity.  Their  skill  and  sagacity  are  like  the 
instinct  of  animals,  and  they  manifest  still  less  invention  and 
foresight  in  providing  the  means  of  comfort  and  subsistence. 

(9.)  On  the  25th  of  February,  Captain  "Wilkes  left  Orange 
Harbor  in  the  brig  Porpoise,  accompanied  by  the  Sea  Gull 
under  Lieutenant  Johnson,  for  a  short  cruise  in  the  Southern 
Polar  regions.  Captain  Hudson  sailed  on  the  same  day  with 
the  Peacock  and  the  Flying-Fish — the  latter  in  charge  of 
Lieutenant  Walker — in  the  direction  of  Cook's  Ne  Plus 
Ultra,  under  instructions  to  penetrate  as  far  south  of  that 
point  as  the  season  and  other  circumstances  would  permit. 
Lieutenant  Craven  remained  at  Orange  Harbor  in  command 
of  the  Vincennes  ;  and  the  Relief  was  ordered  to  the  straits 
of  Magellan,  for  scientific  duty — the  corps  of  scientific  gentle- 
men being  temporarily  transferred  to  that  vessel. 

The  Sea  Gull  returned  to  Orange  Harbor  on  the  22d  of 
March,  having  separated  from  her  consort  during  the  cruise, 
and  the  Porpoise  arrived  on  the  30th.     No  new  discoveries 


76  ICE   AND   ICEBERGS.  L1839. 

of  importance  had  been  made.  The  weather  had  proved  un- 
favorable, and  on  penetrating  as  far  south  as  the  sixty-sixth 
degree  of  southern  latitude,  Captain  Wilkes  found  himself 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  innumerable  icebergs  and  field  ice, 
and  was  therefore  obliged  to  retrace  his  course.  While  he 
was  absent  from  Orange  Harbor,  he  visited  the  South  Shet- 
lands  and  Palmer's  Land,  but  was  only  able  to  verify  the 
discoveries  of  former  navigators. 

Captain  Hudson  encountered  the  first  icebergs  on  the  11th 
of  March,  in  latitude  63°  30'  S.  and  80°  W.  longitude* 
The  Flying  Fish  separated  from  the  Peacock  in  a  gale,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  cruise,  but  fell  in  with  her  again  before 
its  termination.  Captain  Hudson  ascended  a  little  above  the 
sixty-eighth  degree  of  southern  latitude,  and  Lieutenant 
Walker  went  as  high  as  the  seventieth  degree,  where  his 
further  progress  was  impeded  by  impassable  barriers  of  ice. 
Both  vessels  came  near  being  hemmed  in  by  these  frozen 
bulwarks.  The  Flying  Fish  was  once  rescued  from  a  most 
perilous  position  by  a  fortunate  breeze,  and  the  Peacock,  after 
being  enveloped  for  six  days,  from  the  19th  to  the  25th  of 
March,  in  ice  and  icebergs,  was  with  great  difficulty  worked 
out  into  the  open  sea,  through  a  dense  fog,  by  carrying  on  all 
her  canvas.  The  decks  and  rigging  of  the  vessels  were  coated 
with  ice,  and  everything  was  dark,  dreary  and  cheerless.  If 
there  was  a  pause  in  the  howling  of  the  wind,  it  seemed  to 
bellow  with  increased  fury  when  it  again  swept  above  the 
wintry  waste.  If  the  leaden-colored  clouds  parted  over  head, 
and  the  beautiful  tints  of  blue  sky  were  reflected  in  the  water, 
they  could  scarcely  be  admired,  before  the  heavens  were  onco 
more  overshadowed  by  that  black  and  dismal  pall  which  al- 
most shut  out  the  light  of  day. 

As  if  to  compensate  for  all  this  dreariness  and  gloom,  sev- 
eral splendid  exhibitions  of  the  aurora  australist  were  wit- 

*  In  the  South  Pacific,  the  Polar  currents  being  very  little  interrupted  by  land, 
deviate  less  from  their  general  course  than  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and,  consequently,  carry  icebergs  nearer  to  the  tropics  than  is  usual  north  of  the 
Equator. 

f  The  aurora  australis  is  the  phenomenon  in  the  southern  hemisphere  corre- 
sponding to  the  aurora  borealis  in  the  northern. 


1839.]  SAILING    OF    THE    SQ.UADR0N.  77 

nessed.  The  Magellan  Clouds,  the  Zodiacal  Light,  and  the 
brilliant  constellation  of  the  Southern  Cross,  whose  magic 
beauties  have  so  often  been  remarked  and  admired  by  trav- 
ellers in  the  Polar  regions,  were  seen  in  all  their  perfection. 
Other  luciform  appearances,  less  striking,  perhaps,  but  full 
of  interest  and  beauty,  were  likewise  observed. 

From  these  vast  southern  solitudes,  where  the  sea-lion,  the 
petrel,  the  albatross  and  the  penguin,  are  rarely  disturbed  in 
their  ice-bound  retreats,  Captain  Hudson  and  Lieutenant 
Walker  gladly  turned  the  heads  of  their  vessels  to  the  north, 
when  they  found  that  the  season  was  so  far  advanced,  that 
nothing  further  could  be  gained  by  protracting  their  stay. 

(10.)  The  Flying  Fish  sailed  for  Orange  Harbor,  where 
she  arrived  on  the  11th  of  April,  and  the  Peacock  shaped  her 
course  for  Valparaiso.  On  the  17th  of  April,  orders  were 
issued  to  the  squadron  at  Orange  Harbor  to  get  under  way. 
The  Vincennes  and  Porpoise  dropped  down  to  Scapenham 
Bay  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  wind  being  light  and  un- 
favorable, they  came  to  anchor.  A  heavy  squall  coming  up, 
they  ran  back  into  Orange  Bay  for  a  few  hours.  At  daylight 
on  the  18th,  a  more  propitious  breeze  finally  wafted  them 
from  those  desolate  regions,  and  launched  them  upon  the 
broad  and  comparatively  peaceful  bosom  of  the  Pacific* 
The  south  east  trades  are  the  favorite  winds  of  this  ocean, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  Exploring  Squadron  had  passed  the 
latitude  of  Chiloe,  that  they  felt  the  genial  influence  of  these 
prosperous  gales,  which  wafted  them  on  far  more  rapidly  than 
before  towards  the  Valley  of  Paradise. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  12th  of  May,  they  came  in 
sight  of  the  coast  of  Chili,  and  not  long  after,  the  grand  and 
majestic  peaks  of  the  Andes  were  seen  towering  up  in  the 
back  ground.  In  a  few  days,  the  Vincennes  and  Porpoise 
joined  the  Peacock  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso.  The  Sea 
Gull  and  Flying  Fish  were  left  at  Orange  Harbor  to  await 
the  return  of  the  Relief  from  her  cruise  in  the  Straits  of  Ma- 

*  The  Pacific  received  its  name  froai  Magellan,  in  consequence  of  the  pros- 
perous weather  with  which  he  was  favored  while  navigating  its  surface. 


78  ARRIVAL    AT    VALPARAISO.  [1839. 

gellan.  That  vessel,  however,  had  been  so  long  delayed  that 
it  was  thought  best  to  sail  direct  to  Valparaiso,  where  she 
arrived  in  safety.  The  two  schooners  left  Orange  Harbor 
on  the  28th  of  April,  but  were  separated  in  a  gale,  and  the 
Sea  Gull  probably  foundered,  as  no  tidings  have  ever  been 
heard  of  the  vessel  or  crew.  The  Flying  Fish  reached  Val- 
paraiso on  the  19th  of  May. 


CHAPTER   V. 

(1.)  Approach  to  the  Chilian  Coast.  The  Andes. — ($}.)  Valparaiso.  Appear- 
ance  of  the  City.  Principal  Attractions. — (3.)  Chili.  Early  History.  Rev- 
olutionary Struggles.  War  with  Peru. — (4.)  Santiago.  Other  Towns. — 
(5.)  Dress  of  the  Chilefios.  Manners  and  Customs. — (6.)  Geological  For- 
mation of  the  Country.  Productions.  Zoology. — (7.)  Commerce. — (8.)  Mines. 
— (9.)  Departure  from  Valparaiso. 

(1.)  Few  travellers  approach  the  coast  of  Chili,  or  Chile, 
without  turning  their  eyes  in  the  direction  of  the  lofty  crests 
of  the  Andes,  the  giant  vertebrae  of  South  America.  On 
entering  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  fine  glimpses  are  obtained, 
in  the  northeast,  of  the  peaks  of  the  Great  Cordillera  ;  though 
the  distance — from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles — at  which  they  are  situated,  cannot  be  truly  appreci- 
ated till  you  ascend  the  hills  overlooking  the  beach.  These 
peaks  begin  to  be  numerous  in  latitude  30°  S.,  and  increase 
in  number  as  the  cordillera  trends  away  to  the  south.  The 
principal  one  is  Aconcagua,  at  least  23,200  feet  high — an 
elevation  greater  than  that  of  Chimborazo — which  is,  at  in- 
tervals, an  active  volcano. 

In  pleasant  weather, — the  general  rule,  rather  than  the 
exception,  in  Chili, — the  sunset  view  of  the  Andes,  off  the 
coast,  is  remarkably  beautiful  and  picturesque,  probably  more 
so  than  at  any  other  time  of  the  day  : — the  soft,  transparent 
atmosphere  ;  the  clear  blue  heavens  ;  the  light  fleecy  clouds, 
glowing  with  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  sailing  along  the 
pure  depths  of  the  sky,  or  floating  around  the  rugged  moun- 
tain summits  ;  the  purple  hue  of  evening  falling  in  the  nooks 
and  crevices,  and  the  golden  flush  yet  lingering  on  the  bolder 
rocks  and  precipices,  impart  to  it  all  the  charms  of  romance 
and  enchantment, — and  Fancy  roams  half  bewildered,  through 


80  VIEW    OF    THE    ANDES.  [1839. 

lordly  castles  and  fairy  palaces,  glittering  with  all  the  wealth 
of  Ophir,  sparkling  with  gems  and  precious  stones,  and 
crowned  with  burnished  domes  supported  on  pillars  of  ivory 
and  gold,  beneath  which  hang 

"  Pendant  by  subtle  mngic,  many  a  row 
Of  starry  lamps  and  blazing  cressets,  fe,' 
With  Naphtha  and  Asphaltus." 

But  at  early  dawn,  just  before  the  sun  peeps  above  the  hor- 
izon, when  the  morning  light  streams  from  the  east  through 
every  cleft  and  fissure,  when  Night  still  enshrouds  the  bases 
of  the  mountains  in  her  sable  mantle,  and  the  tops  are  tinged 
with  the  maiden  blushes  of  Aurora,  the  rough  outlines  are 
more  clearly  distinguished,  and,  perhaps,  a  more  powerful 
impression  of  vastness,  magnificence,  and  sublimity,  is  made 
upon  the  mind  of  the  beholder. 

(2.)  Were  it  not  for  its  beautiful  and  matchless  climate, 
Valparaiso  could  boast  of  nothing  that  would  entitle  it  to  the 
distinction  implied  by  its  name.*  The  country  in  its  vicinity 
is  sterile  and  monotonous  ;  along  the  sea  coast  there  extends 
a  range  of  steep  round-topped  hills,  from  fifteen  to  sixteen 
hundred  feet  high,  covered  with  a  bright  grayish  red  soil, 
worn  into  numberless  gulleys,  in  consequence  of  the  slight 
protection  afforded  by  the  dry  and  scorched  turf  scattered 
about  over  it  in  small  patches  ;  there  are  few  or  no  trees 
except  half-withered  cacti ;  and  the  clumps  of  low  stunted 
bushes  and  brambles  occasionally  seen,  do  not  go  very  far  to- 
wards relieving  the  dreary  sameness  of  the  landscape.  In 
the  deep  valleys,  the  vegetation  is  a  little  more  abundant  * 
and  the  plants  and  shrubs, — which  possess,  as  in  most  dry 
climates,  peculiarly  strong  and  pungent  odors,  and,  when  in 
blossom,  present  greater  liveliness  and  richness  of  color  than 
is  usually  met  with, — are  considerably  more  numerous. 

Still,  the  view  of  the  town  from  the  anchorage  is  quite 
pretty.  It  appears  to  be  built  in  terraces,  at  the  foot  of  the 
range  of  hills  flanking  the  coast.     The  houses  are  mostly  con- 

*  The  meaning  of  Valparaiso  s — Vale,  or  Valley,  of  Paradise. 


1839.J  VALPARAISO.  81 

structed  of  adobes,  from  one  to  two  stories  high,  and  sur- 
mounted with  heavy  red  tiles.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
erected  in  a  loose  and  straggling  manner.  All  are  plastered 
on  the  outside,  and  whitewashed  ;  and  when  the  level  rays 
of  the  declining  sun  are  poured  full  upon  the  walls,  they 
glisten  like  burnished  silver.  A  closer  examination,  how- 
ever, destroys  much  of  this  pleasing  and  picturesque  illusion. 
On  the  north,  the  town  stretches  out  on  the  level  sea  shore, 
in  a  long  double  row  of  houses,  called  the  Almendral ;  to- 
wards the  south,  it  rises  in  the  direction  of  the  hills,  upon 
which  there  are  many  neat  cottages,  with  tasteful  flowei 
gardens.  One  of  these  eminences,  Mount  Alegre,  rises  ab- 
ruptly from  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  is  chiefly  occupied  by 
the  residences  of  wealthy  foreigners  and  merchants.  The 
main  street  is  intersected  by  a  number  of  quebrddas,  or 
gorges,  running  parallel  to  each  other,  and  leading  up  which 
there  are  narrow  and  inconvenient  thoroughfares,  with  a  few 
houses  built  at  intervals  ;  these  streets  are  badly  lighted,  and 
are  very  dangerous  at  night.  The  southern  part  of  the  town 
is  divided  by  two  principal  ravines,  into  three  districts,  to 
which  sailors  have  given  the  names  of  Fore  Top,  Main  Top, 
and  Mizen  Top. 

The  harbor,  or  bay  of  Valparaiso,  is  open  to  the  north  and 
northwest;  but  on  the  south  and  southwest,  it  is  protected 
by  the  small  promontory  of  Punta  de  Coronilla,  though  the 
shore  on  this  side  of  the  bay  is  steep  and  rocky,  and  the  waves 
dash  against  the  heights  with  great  fury.  From  the  point, 
the  bay  sweeps  round  to  the  northwest,  in  the  form  of  a  cres- 
cent, having  a  sloping  sandy  beach  which  rises  gradually  to- 
wards the  hills.  In  entering  the  harbor  from  the  south,  there 
is  great  danger,  at  times,  of  drifting  upon  the  point,  from  the 
sudden  dying  away  of  the  wind.  The  holding  ground  being 
of  stiff  clay,  the  anchorage  is  secure,  except  during  the  north- 
erly gales,  which,  though  far  less  frequent  than  those  from 
the  opposite  quarter,  sometimes  blow  with  terrible  violence, 
and  often  terminate  in  severe  storms.  The  bay  is  protected 
by  three  small  forts ;  the  most  strongly  fortified  is  the  castle 

4* 


82  FACILITIES    FOR    LANDING.  [1839 

of  San  Antonio,  containing  about  a  dozen  guns,  which  stands 
in  the  southern  inlet  of  the  bay  ;  el  Castillo  del  Rosario, 
which  has  six  guns,  is  in  the  northern  part  of  the  town,  and 
the  remaining  fort,  mounting  five  guns,  in  the  southern. 

Formerly,  there  was  no  facility  for  landing  goods  at  Val- 
paraiso, except  by  launches  moored  to  the  shore,  across  which 
packages  were  carried  on  men's  shoulders,  or  by  boats  ;  but 
a  mole  has  been  recently  built  at  the  most  favorable  point 
for  landing.  This  is  considered  perfectly  safe,  except  during 
the  prevalence  of  north  winds,  when  it  is  exceedingly  danger- 
ous to  approach  it,  on  account  of  the  violence  of  the  surf.  A 
wooden  jetty  stretches  out  into  the  sea  about  sixty  paces, 
which  is  frequently  submerged  by  the  waves,  and  has  been 
several  times  demolished.  The  harbor-master's  boats,  and 
those  belonging  to  men-of-war,  land  on  the  right  side  of  the 
jetty,  and  those  of  merchant  vessels  on  the  left.  Small  boats, 
usually  manned  by  two  Indians,  are  always  to  be  found  near 
the  landing-place,  ready  to  convey  passengers  to  and  fro  the 
vessels  in  the  harbor.  Whenever  a  stranger  makes  his  ap- 
pearance on  the  muele,  or  mole,  he  is  sure  to  be  greeted  with 
the  importunate  inquiry — Vdmos  abordo,  sefior?  (Going 
aboard,  sir  ?) — which  sometimes  gives  place  to,  "  Want  a 
boat  ? — want  a  boat  ?"  in  English. 

On  reaching  the  shore,  almost  the  first  object  that  attracts 
the  attention  is  the  motley  crowd  of  Choloes,  or  country  peo- 
ple, dressed  in  their  long  coarse  ponchos,*  who  congregate 
here  for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  their  wares.  Passing 
through  the  clamoring  boatmen  and  jabbering  peasantry,  you 
approach  the  custom-house,  a  large  and  fine  building  erected 
on  the  mole.  Near  the  custom-house  is  the  exchange,  a  more 
unpretending  structure,  but  containing  a  spacious  and  elegant 
reading-room  well  supplied  with  foreign  newspapers.  This  is 
the  favorite  resort  of  ship-masters  and  commercial  travellers, 

*  The  poncho  is  a  long  blanket,  varying  in  color  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
wearer,  with  a  hole,  or  slit,  in  the  middle,  through  which  the  head  is  thrust — 
thus  permitting  the  ends  to  hang  down  behind  and  before. 


1839.]  PUBLIC    BUILDINGS.  83 

great  numbers  of  whom  are  constantly  to  be  seen  at  Val- 
paraiso. 

The  other  public  buildings  are  a  government  house  situated 
on  the  plaza,  a  small  triangular  space  in  one  of  the  quebradas. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  plaza,  are  the  principal  church,  and 
the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  chapels  ;  and  between  it  and 
the  castle  of  San  Antonio,  is  the  arsenal,  consisting  of  a 
number  of  low  buildings  and  sheds.  About  the  middle  of  the 
Almendral,  are  the  ruins  of  the  church  and  convent  of  La 
Merced,  destroyed  by  the  great  earthquake  of  1822.  There 
are  several  monasteries  in  the  city,  but  all  wear  a  gloomy 
and  cheerless  look.  The  churches  are  unusually  plain  and 
simple ;  they  are  neither  distinguished  for  architectural 
ornaments  on  the  outside,  nor  for  their  decorations  in  the 
Interior. 

For  places  of  amusement,  the  inhabitants  of  Valparaiso 
have  a  theatre  poorly  fitted  up,  and  a  chingano,  both  of 
which  are  open,  and  generally  crowded,  on  Sunday  evening. 
The  chingano  is  a  large  amphitheatre,  surrounded  by  apart- 
ments, or  booths,  where  liquors  and  refreshments  are  sold ; 
it  is  much  frequented  by  both  sexes,  particularly  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  one  of  its  most  attractive  entertainments  is  a 
lascivious  dance,  termed  the  samacueca,  which  is  performed 
by  a  young  man  and  woman,  on  a  stage,  under  an  open 
shed. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  in  the  city,  is  the 
moveable  prison.  This  is  a  large  covered  wagon,  resembling 
those  used  for  the  conveyance  of  wild  beasts.  The  door,  at 
which  a  guard  is  stationed,  is  at  the  back  end ;  inside,  there 
are  plank  bedsteads,  like  those  in  guard-houses,  large  enough 
to  accommodate  eight  or  ten  persons ;  and  in  front  is  a  small 
apartment  for  cooking.  A  large  number  of  these  prisons  may 
be  seen  in  the  streets ;  they  are  drawn  by  the  prisoners,  who 
are  mostly  employed  in  working  on  the  roads  and  bridges. 

There  is  a  great  plenty  of  taverns  in  Valparaiso,  though 
not  much  can  be  said  in  their  favor.  The  best  are  kept  by 
Frenchmen,    but   these   are    incommodious   and   expensive. 


84  POLICE    OF    THE    CITY.  [1839. 

"Want  of  cleanliness  is  the  chief  fault  of  all.  The  tables 
are  amply  provided  from  a  market,  held  in  the  plaza,  always 
well  supplied  with  good  meat,  poultry,  fish,  bread,  fruit,  and 
vegetables. 

No  one  ever  visits  this  town,  of  late  years,  without  re- 
marking the  efficiency  of  the  police  established  by  Diego 
Portales,  formerly  Minister  of  War  and  the  Interior.  It 
Consists  of  two  bodies,  the  vigilantes,  or  police  proper,  and 
the  serenos,  or  watchmen.  The  former  are  armed  and  uni- 
formed, and  patrol  the  streets  on  horseback ;  the  latter  are 
provided  with  swords  alone,  and  go  on  foot.  Each  sereno 
has  his  particular  beat  or  district,  and  carries  a  small  whistle, 
which  makes  a  loud  and  shrill  noise.  It  is  customary  to  call 
the  hours  at  night,  and  announce  the  state  of  the  weather. 
At  ten  o'clock  the  sereno  commences  with — Viva  Chile  ! 
viva  Chile  ! — las  diez  han  dado  cldro  y  sereno !  (past  ten 
o'clock  and  a  clear  and  fine  night !)  In  the  morning  they 
say,  Viva  Chile  !  viva  Chile  / — Ave  Maria  purissima — las 
cuatro  de  la  mafiana,  y  nublddo  !  (past  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  cloudy  !)  or, — la  seis  de  la  mandna,  y  lluvioso! 
(past  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  rainy  !)  These  calls 
are  uttered  in  a  sort  of  tune,  pitched  to  a  high  key,  which  is 
rather  pleasing  than  otherwise.  If  an  earthquake  takes  place, 
it  is  announced  in  the  same  manner  by  the  sereno,  as  he  goes 
his  round.  Midnight  brawls  and  murders  were  formerly  quite 
common,  but  they  are  now  of  very  rare  occurrence,  and  are 
mainly  confined  to  the  southern  quarter,  the  most  abandoned 
part  of  the  town. 

Valparaiso  contains  not  far  from  thirty  thousand  inhabi- 
tants,— a  large  proportion  of  whom  are  foreigners,  from  Ger- 
many, England,  France,  and  the  United  States, — and  it  is 
annually  increasing  in  extent  and  population.  The  old  Span- 
ish families  are  few  in  number,  but  they  are  remarkable  for 
the  combined  grace  and  dignity  of  their  demeanor,  the  neat- 
ness of  their  personal  appearance,  and  the  cleanliness  and 
tidiness  of  their  dwellings.  The  main  dependence  of  the 
city  is  its  commerce,  and  the  avocations  and  tastes  of  the 


1.839.]  POPULATION.  85 

inhabitants  are,  consequently,  almost  exclusively  of  a  mer- 
cantile character.  They  are  hospitable  and  kind  to  strangers, 
not  more  from  interest  than  from  impulse.  With  the  influx 
of  so  many  foreigners,  new  customs  have  been  introduced, 
and  those  of  the  ancient  Spanish  residents  are  gradually  dis- 
appearing. Their  costumes  likewise  are  being  supplanted 
by  French  styles  and  fashions.  That  these  changes  have 
taken  place  without  serious  disagreement  or  difficulty,  is 
probably  owing  to  the  intermarriage  of  the  foreigners  with 
Spanish  ladies.  Now  and  then  a  genuine  Castilian — one  of 
the  old  noblesse — may  be  found,  who  looks  with  mingled 
emotions  of  contempt  and  abhorrence  on  these  innovations ; 
but  the  great  majority  have  long  since  learned  to  regard  them, 
if  not  with  love,  at  least  without  hatred.  Until  quite  re- 
cently, it  was  not  customary  for  the  ladies  of  Valparaiso  to 
wear  either  hats  or  head-dresses,  even  in  the  streets, — their 
dark  glossy  ringlets  being  gathered  into  two  plaits,  and  suf- 
fered to  hang  down  the  back,  sometimes  nearly  reaching  the 
ground, — but  latterly  bonnets  have  been  introduced,  and  they 
are  becoming  quite  the  fashion. 

In  point  of  morals,  Valparaiso  does  not  compare  favorably 
with  many  other  South  American  towns.  The  higher  classes 
are  excessively  fond  of  amusements,  and  those  beneath  them 
in  position  imitate  their  example,  though  manifesting  less 
regard  for  the  decencies  of  life,  and  substituting  coarser  en- 
joyments for  those  of  a  more  refined  character.  A  great  part 
of  the  houses  in  the  southern  quarter  of  the  city,  are  grog- 
shops, brothels,  and  kindred  places  of  resort ;  at  every  step 
you  discover  the  wrinkles  of  cankering  care  and  passion  dis- 
figuring the  countenance  of  the  chevalier  d?  Industrie,  who 
strives,  in  vain,  to  conceal  his  repulsive  features  under  his 
broad  sombrero, — or  start  at  the  dark  flashing  eyes  of  the 
courtesan,  who  gathers  her  gay  crimson  or  green  bay  eta* 
more  closely  about  her  half-exposed  person,  not  from  any 
instinct  of  modesty,  but  rather  to  hide  the  dirty  calico  dress 
beneath  it. 

*  The  bay  eta  is  a  coarse  baize  shawl  worn  by  women  of  the  lower  classes 


86  CEMETERIES.  [1839, 

On  a  high  hill  overlooking  the  town,  are  the  burial  grounds. 
The  principal  one  is  divided  by  mud  walls  into  two  compart- 
ments, one  of  which  is  used  by  Catholics,  and  the  other  is 
appropriated  to  heretics.  Near  by  is  a  charnel  house  full  of 
skulls  and  bones.  Interments  are  conducted  with  very  little 
care  or  attention.  The  graves  are  shallow  excavations,  in 
which  the  dead  are  laid,  with  their  heads  to  the  west,  often 
without  either  coffin  or  shroud.  A  small  quantity  of  earth 
is  then  thrown  in  and  beaten  down  with  a  billet  of  wood ; 
not  unfrequently  half  of  this  thin  covering  is  blown  off  by  the 
wind  in  a  few  days,  and  the  decaying  body  exposed,  wholly 
or  in  part,  to  the  sight.  A  rudely-fashioned  cross  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  grave,  is,  usually,  the  only  designation  em- 
ployed. In  the  Protestant  cemetery,  which  adjoins  the  for- 
mer, there  are  neat  marble  slabs,  and  every  other  indication 
of  the  respect  paid  by  the  living  to  the  dead. 

(3.)  Previous  to  the  Spanish  conquest,  Chili  formed  a  part 
of  the  possessions  of  the  Peruvian  Incas.  In  1535,  Almagro 
invaded  the  country,  under  the  orders  of  Pizarro ;  and  in 
1540  it  was  overrun  and  subjugated,  with  the  exception  of 
Araucania,  by  Valdivia.  The  first  insurrectionary  move- 
ment looking  towards  a  separation  from  the  mother  country, 
was  made  in  1810,  and  terminated  in  1814,  when  the  prov- 
ince was  temporarily  quieted.  From  that  time  till  the  year 
1817,  the  disaffected  inhabitants  were  overawed  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  large  body  of  royalist  forces.  But  the  tocsin  of 
liberty  had  not  been  sounded  in  vain ;  its  echoes  continued 
to  reverberate  among  the  fastnesses  of  the  Andes,  and  to 
awaken  glad  responses  in  the  breasts  of  the  true-hearted 
patriots  of  Chili.  In  1817,  the  banner  of  freedom  was  again 
flung  to  the  winds,  and  after  a  bloody  and  obstinate  engage- 
ment on  the  plains  of  Chacabuco,  in  which  General  Mendoza, 
at  the  head  of  the  patriot  army  of  four  thousand  men,  de- 
feated five  thousand,  the  Spanish  troops  were  expelled  from 
the  country.  The  preliminary  measures  for  forming  an  in- 
dependent government  were  being  taken,  when  a  new  and 
increased  force  of  royalists  appeared  in  the  field,  under  the 


1839.]  EARLY   HISTORY   OP    CHILI.  87 

command  of  General  Osorio.  This  force  was  likewise 
routed,  at  Maypu,  on  the  5th  day  of  April,  1818,  by  the 
Chilian  troops  under  San  Martin,  O'Higgins,  and  other 
patriot  leaders.  Still  another  effort  was  made  by  Spain  to 
regain  her  lost  dominion,  and  a  fifty-gun  frigate,  convoying 
eleven  transport  ships,  with  twenty-five  hundred  men  on 
board,  was  ordered  to  Chili.  This  formidable  armament  was 
met  at  Talcahuano,  and  captured,  by  a  small  squadron  com- 
manded by  Captain  Manuel  Blanco,  consisting  of  two  armed 
ships,  a  corvette  and  several  trading  vessels,  hastily  collected 
and  equipped,  after  the  enemy  had  reached  Cape  Horn. 

This  was  the  last  attempt  made  by  Spain  to  reconquer  the 
country ;  and  the  independence  of  the  latter  being  now  per- 
manently secured,  a  form  of  government  was  established. 
The  first  government  was  dictatorial.  General  O'Higgins, 
originally  chosen  Dictator  on  the  16th  of  February,  1816, 
was  continued  in  office,  under  the  title  of  Supreme  Director 
of  Chili,  till  the  year  1823.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ramon 
Freyre,  who  resigned  in  1826.  Meanwhile  various  factions 
had  sprung  up,  all  evidently  desirous  of  securing  the  advance- 
ment of  the  country  in  prosperity  and  greatness.  Civil  dis- 
turbances and  dissensions  naturally  grew  out  of  these  politi- 
cal divisions  ;  repeated  changes  were  made  in  the  Executive, 
but  the  government  does  not  appear,  at  any  time,  to  have 
been  administered  with  sufficient  firmness  and  rigor.  In 
1828,  a  republican  constitution  was  proclaimed,  and  Gen- 
eral Pinto  was  elected  president.  The  latter  shortly  after 
resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ramon  Vicuna,  then  presi- 
dent of  the  Senate.  Vicuna  soon  became  unpopular ;  and 
the  friends  of  liberal  institutions,  under  the  lead  of  General 
Joaquin  Prieto,  took  up  arms  against  him.  The  civil  war 
ended  in  the  complete  overthrow  of  Vicuna.  The  brief  ad- 
ministrations of  Tagle  and  Ovalle  followed,  and  in  1831, 
General  Prieto  was  elected  to  the  presidency.  After  holding 
the  office  two  terms,  of  five  years  each,  he  gave  place  to  his 
nephew  General  Bulnes, — the  constitution  of  the  republic 


88  ADMINISTRATION    OF    PRIETO.  [1839. 

prohibiting  the  election  of  the  same  person  for  a  third  succes- 
sive term. 

"With  the  accession  of  Pri6to  to  the  Chief  Magistracy,  a 
new  era  dawned  upon  Chili.  He  found  everything  in  con- 
fusion and  disorder ;  the  military  fast  gaining  the  ascen- 
dency ;  and  a  national  debt  already  contracted  amounting 
to  the  enormous  sum  of  over  eight  million  piasters.*  He 
was  just  the  man  for  the  crisis  ;  and  he  was  warmly  and 
*bly  seconded  in  his  efforts  to  restore  the  credit  and  char- 
acter of  the  country,  by  his  minister  of  war  and  the  interior, 
Diego  Portales.  Certain  means  were  taken  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  state ;  commerce  was  fostered,  and  industry 
md  enterprise  of  every  kind  encouraged  ;  the  government 
■was  administered  firmly,  but  mildly;  the  taxes  were  re- 
duced, and  order  and  economy  rigidly  enforced  in  every 
branch  of  the  public  service.  Congress  kept  pace  with  the 
Executive  ;  and  its  legislation  was  so  directed  as  to  secure 
the  perfect  liberty  of  the  citizen,  so  far  as  was  compatible 
with  the  public  safety,  and  absolute  equality  under  the  law 
to  every  man.  No  titles  or  special  privileges  were  permitted 
to  be  conferred,  and  all  distinctions  between  native  and 
adopted  citizens  were  abolished.  One  happy  result  of  the 
financial  measures  of  Prieto,  was  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
revenue — an  advance  of  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
per  cent,  in  the  annual  receipts  being  realized  in  the  short 
space  of  twelve  years — and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  the 
speedy  extinguishment  of  the  public  debt.  Ever  since  the 
year  1835,  there  has  been  a  surplus  of  the  revenue  over  the 
expenditure ;  in  1842,  the  former  amounted  to  three  million 
eight  hundred  thousand  piasters,  and  the  latter  to  two  million 
four  hundred  thousand, — showing  a  surplus  of  nearly  fourteen 
hundred  thousand  piasters.  In  May,  1843,  Chilian  six  per 
cents  rose  to  93,  arid  in  1845  they  were  quoted  at  104.  Too 
much  praise  cannot  be  awarded  to  Prieto,  for  his  wise,  skil- 
ful, and  successful  statesmanship  ;  the  chief  merit  of  accom- 
plishing these  splendid  results  within  so  brief  a  period  is 
*  About  ten  million  dollars,  federal  currency. 


1839.]  GOVERNMENT.  89 

certainly  due  to  him,  as  his  successor,  Bulnes  has  but  carried 
out  the  principles  of  political  economy  introduced  under  his 
auspices. 

Chili  is  what  may  be  called  a  central  republic.  The  Ex- 
ecutive power  is  vested  in  a  President,  who  receives  an  annual 
salary  of  twelve  thousand  dollars ;  he  is  assisted  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  by  four  ministers,  who  constitute  his 
cabinet.  There  is  also  an  executive  council  of  eight  mem- 
bers. The  legislature  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Deputies ;  the  former  containing  nineteen  members,  and  the 
latter  eighty-two.  The  senators  are  chosen  for  the  term  of 
five  years,  in  ten  provinces ;  and  the  deputies  for  three  years, 
in  thirty-five  departments.  The  administration  of  justice  is 
not  yet  free  from  the  old  Spanish  forms,  but  it  is  expeditious, 
and,  in  the  main,  impartial  and  equitable ;  the  judges  hold 
their  offices  for  life.  The  army,  in  time  of  peace,  numbers 
about  three  thousand  men. 

Within  the  past  ten  years,  Chili  has  steadily  pursued  a 
career  which  promises  at  no  distant  day  to  produce  a  high 
state  of  national  prosperity.  The  indications  of  a  sound  and 
healthful  progress  are  everywhere  visible.  Flourishing  towns 
and  villages,  rich  farms  and  plantations,  occupy  the  places  of 
the  miserable  huts  and  haciendas  of  former  times.  Schools, 
colleges,  and  other  public  institutions,  have  been  established, 
and  the  young  people  are  now  generally  instructed  in  the 
rudiments  of  knowledge.  The  national  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic,  but  an  exceedingly  tolerant  spirit  prevails  even 
among  the  clergy.  Protestant  denominations  are  allowed 
to  worship  after  their  own  mode,  but  not  to  erect  churches. 

The  republic  of  Chili  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  desert 
of  Atacama,  which  separates  it  from  Bolivia  and  Peru ;  on 
the  south  by  Patagonia ;  on  the  east  by  the  Great  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific.  The  islands 
of  Mocha  and  Juan-Fernandez,  and  the  archipelago  of 
Chiloe,  also  belong  to  Chili.  Within  the  limits  above  men- 
tioned, however,  the  province  of  Araucania  is  embraced, 
which,  perhaps,  may  be  a  subject  of  dispute,  as  the  warlike 


90  DIFFICULTIES    WITH    PERU.  [1839. 

tribes  who  inhabit  it  have  never  yet  been  subdued,  and  claim 
to  be  entirely  independent.  Including  the  islands,  the  total 
area  of  Chilian  territory  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  square  miles.  Various  estimates  in  regard  to  the 
population  have  been  made  ;  but  the  most  reliable  authorities 
fix  it  at  one  million  two  hundred  thousand.  The  people  are 
mostly  of  Spanish  and  Indian  descent,  although  there  are 
some  negroes  and  mulattoes.  In  the  seaport  towns,  as  in 
Valparaiso,  there  are  great  numbers  of  foreigners,  to  whom 
the  country  is  much  indebted  for  its  present  commercial  im- 
portance. 

There  are  no  slaves  in  Chili,  but  there  exists  in  the  coun- 
try a  condition  of  servitude,  called  peonage,  common  to  most 
of  the  colonies  of  Old  Spain.  After  its  conquest  by  the 
Spaniards,  Chili  was  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty 
portions,  which  were  given  to  that  number  of  individuals. 
These,  of  course,  have  been  frequently  subdivided,  but  there 
are  still  many  large  estates,  which  are  generally  kept  for 
grazing  purposes.  The  proprietors  usually  reside  with  their 
families  in  the  towns  ;  the  management  of  their  farms  being 
entrusted  to  a  major-domo,  or  steward,  under  whom  are  a 
chief,  and  a  few  subordinate  herdsmen,  or  guachos.  These 
are  assisted  in  taking  care  of  the  land,  by  tenants,  who  hold 
their  dwellings  under  the  proprietor,  by  a  sort  of  feudal 
tenure — being  obliged  to  give  their  services  in  any  kind  of 
labor  required  of  them,  either  without  pay,  or  for  a  small 
remuneration — and  are  termed  peons.  They  are  for  the  most 
part  entirely  dependent  on  their  landlord,  and  sometimes  the 
most  arbitrary  exactions  and  impositions  are  practiced  with 
impunity. 

One  great  drawback  on  the  prosperity  of  Chili,  has  been 
her  difficulties  with  Peru.  The  latter  was  essentially  aided 
in  her  struggle  with  Spain  by  the  men  and  money  of  the 
former,  and  her  independence  was  finally  achieved,  in  1821, 
by  a  Chilian  army  under  San  Martin ;  it  would,  therefore, 
have  been  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  the  strongest  ties 
of  gratitude  and  fraternal  feeling  would   have  united  the 


1839.]  DEFEAT    OF    SANTA   CRUZ.  91 

people  of  the  two  countries  firmly  together.  But  the  disaf 
fected  politicians  and  malcontents  of  Chili  were  always  wel- 
comed in  Peru,  and  not  only  allowed,  but  encouraged,  to 
concoct  their  plans,  and  carry  on  their  intrigues,  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  government  of  their  own  country.  The 
growing  commerce  of  their  neighbors  had  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  Peruvians,  and  commercial  jealousies  and 
rivalships  were,  doubtless,  at  the  bottom  of  the  inimical 
feelings  which  they  soon  began  openly  to  manifest.  The 
Chilians  are  resolute,  independent,  and  high-minded,  and 
they  took  no  pains  to  conceal  their  displeasure.  The  ani- 
mosity thus  engendered  became  more  marked  and  decided, 
in  1836,  when  Santa  Cruz  was  elected  Supreme  Protector 
of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Republic. 

The  Protector  not  only  issued  a  decree  nullifying  the  treaty 
with  Chili  then  in  existence,  but  he  received  the  disaffected 
Chilians  with  open  arms,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  arm 
three  men-of-war  at  Callao,  which  he  placed  at  their  dis- 
posal in  order  to  effect  a  revolution.  The  government  of 
Chili  was  not  idle,  however  ;  an  expedition  was  fitted  out, 
and  the  vessels  captured  by  a  bold  and  well-executed  coup 
de  main,  the  legality  of  which  Peru  was  ultimately  obliged 
to  acknowledge,  before  they  had  left  the  harbor  of  Callao. 
The  difficulty  between  the  two  governments  did  not  end 
here ;  one  act  of  aggression  was  followed  by  another  ;  and 
at  length  Santa  Cruz  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  forbidding 
all  foreign  vessels  to  visit  any  place  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America,  without  having  first  entered  a  Peruvian 
port,  under  the  penalty  of  being  required  to  pay  additional 
entrance  duties.  Chili  promptly  resented  this  insult  by  a 
declaration  of  war ;  a  large  military  force  was  immediately 
raised,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  General  Bulnes, 
who  invaded  Peru,  and  occupied  Lima  and  other  towns  with 
his  forces.  In  January,  1839,  a  general  engagement  took 
place  at  Yungay,  which  resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of 
Santa  Cruz  The  loss  of  his  power  followed  the  loss  of  his 
army,    and    the    Protector    was    subsequently   banished   to 


92  SANTIAGO.  [1839. 

Europe.  A  new  treaty  of  peace  was  now  concluded  be- 
tween Chili  and  Peru,  the  provisions  of  which  have  been 
faithfully  regarded  and  observed. 

(4.)  Sixty  four  miles  from  Valparaiso,  in  a  south  easterly 
direction,  is  Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chili.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  eastern  verge  of  the  broad  and  fertile  plain 
of  Maypu,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras.*  The  city  proper 
is  on  the  southwestern  bank  of  the  Maypocho,  a  mountain 
stream  which  is  generally  dry  for  nine  months  in  the  year, 
but  during  the  rainy  season  is  swollen  into  a  powerful 
torrent.  A  handsome  stone  bridge,  of  five  arches,  spanning 
the  river,  connects  the  suburb  of  La  Chimba  with  the  cap- 
ital. On  the  southeast  side  of  the  latter  is  its  suburb  of 
Canadilla,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Canada,  a 
pleasant  promenade,  fifty  yards  wide,  and  planted  with  pop- 
lars. At  the  southwestern  angle  of  the  city  is  the  suburb 
of  Cuchunco. 

At  a  distance  Santiago  has  a  very  imposing  appearance 
In  the  outskirts,  there  are  numerous  pretty  quintas,  delight 
fully  embowered  amid  groves  of  laurel,  myrtle,  and  poplar 
The  approaches  to  the  city  are  mostly  through  shady  lanes, 
or  avenues,  flanked  by  high  adobe  walls,  inclosing  extensive 
vineyards,  well-stocked  orchards  and  gardens,  and  finely- 
cultivated  maize  fields.  Passing  these,  you  catch  sight  of 
the  domes  and  steeples  of  the  capital  towering  above  the 
humbler  edifices  around  them.  Like  most  Spanish  towns, 
Santiago  is  divided  into  quadras,  or  squares,  whose  sides  are 
each  a  little  over  four  hundred  feet  in  length.  The  streets, 
which  are  generally  well-paved,  and  have  good  side-walks, 
are  about  thirteen  yards  wide.  In  the  city  and  its  suburbs, 
there  are  between  two  and  three  hundred  quadras,  which 
are  included  in  five  parishes.  As  the  ground  slopes  gently 
towards  the  west,  the  location  of  the  town  is  peculiarly  favor- 
able for  supplying  the  inhabitants  with  water,  and  for  under 
drainage  ;  in  the  latter  respect,  no  other  city  in  South  Amer- 

*  Santiago  occupies  the  site  of  an  ancient  Indian  Settlement.  It  was  founded 
by  Valdivia  in  1541. 


1889.]  APPEARANCE    OF    THE    CITY.  93 

ica  can  compare  with  the  Chilian  capital.  The  waters  of  the 
Maypocho  are  also  employed  for  ornamental  purposes  ;  there 
being  a  great  number  of  public  fountains  and  reservoirs  scat- 
tered through  the  city.  The  Plaza,  occupying  an  entire 
quadra  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  contains  the  largest  foun- 
tain, furnished  with  water  by  a  subterraneous  aqueduct, 
from  which  the  inhabitants  principally  obtain  their  supplies 
for  drinking.  The  water  is  conveyed  in  barrels  holding  ten 
gallons  each — two  of  which  are  a  load  for  a  mule — and  sold 
for  about  ten  cents  per  barrel. 

A  solid  brick  wall,  or  rampart,  six  feet  broad,  and  ten  feet 
high,  extends  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Maypocho,  as  a 
protection  against  inundation  during  the  heavy  rains.  Be- 
tween the  river  and  the  town  is  the  Alameda,  which  is 
planted  with  willows,  and  furnished  with  seats,  reservoirs, 
and  artificial  streams  of  running  water  ;  in  pleasant  weather, 
it  is  thronged,  in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  with  all  classes 
and  sexes,  with  beggars  and  hidalgos,  rosy-cheeked  padres, 
dark-eyed  senoritas,  and  stately  caballeros, — and  the  soft 
moonlight  that  streams  down  the  rugged  sides  of  the  Andes, 
and  falls  tremblingly  upon  the  plain  of  Maypu,  rests  nowhere 
on  happier  or  more  picturesque  groups,  than  those  which  may 
be  seen  in  the  cool  paseos  of  this  favorite  promenade  of  the 
citizens  of  Santiago.  At  the  northeastern  angle  of  the  city- 
proper,  is  the  hill  of  Santa  Lucia,  the  site  of  the  fortress 
bearing  the  same  name,  intended  to  command  the  town  ; 
there  is  no  other  defence,  and  the  artillery  in  this  work 
could  be  easily  silenced  by  guns  planted  on  the  neighboring 
hills. 

In  cleanliness,  regularity,  and  salubrity,  Santiago  greatly 
surpasses  the  other  cities  of  South  America  ;  but  it  is  inferior 
to  Lima  in  its  public  buildings.  On  the  northwest  side  of 
the  plaza,  are  the  presidential  mansion,  the  palace  of  govern- 
ment, the  prison,  and  the  chamber  of  justice ;  on  the  south- 
west side  stands  the  cathedral,  and  the  old  palace  of  the 
bishop,  now  occupied  by  the  est  ado  mayor ;  on  the  south- 
east there  is  a  range  of  shops  with  a  colonnade  in  front,  and 


94  PUBLIC    EDIFICES.  [1839. 

the  remaining  side  is  occupied  by  private  residences.  All 
these  buildings,  except  the  cathedral,  are  built  of  brick, 
plastered  over  and  whitewashed,  and  show  more  or  less 
marks  of  the  injuries  occasioned  by  the  frequent  earthquakes. 
The  palace,  originally  built  for  the  vice-regal  government, 
makes  the  most  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty  ;  it  con- 
sists of  two  stories  surrounding  a  large  open  quadrangle  ;  in 
the  lower  story  are  the  armory  and  treasury, — in  the  upper, 
the  great  hall  of  audience  and  the  ministerial  offices. 

The  cathedral  is  the  only  stone  edifice  in  the  city ;  the 
material  of  which  it  is  constructed  was  quarried  in  the  suburb 
of  La  Chimba ;  its  design  is  Moorish,  and  has  been  executed 
with  considerable  taste  and  skill ;  it  is  a  large  and  extensive 
building,  and  contains,  inside,  an  abundance  of  gold  and  silver 
ornaments,  paintings,  tapestry,  and  wax  figures.  The  parish 
churches  are  comparatively  mean  structures ;  but  the  con- 
ventual establishments,  of  which  there  are  many,  are  well 
built  and  furnished.  The  bishop's  palace  is  a  heavy,  sombre- 
looking  building,  fast  going  to  decay.  The  largest  public 
edifice  in  Santiago  is  the  mint,  which  covers  a  whole  square. 
To  most  strangers  it  seems  unsightly  enough,  but  the  natives 
really  look  upon  it  with  admiration.  It  is  of  plain  brick,  and 
like  the  other  buildings  erected  for  state  purposes,  was  con- 
structed by  bricklayers  sent  out  from  Spain  expressly  for 
this  purpose.  Its  front  presents  a  series  of  heavy  pilasters, 
supporting  a  rude  cornice  and  ponderous  balustrade,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  massive  arched  portico.  It  is  still  in- 
complete, and  is  much  dilapidated,  principally  by  reason  of 
the  earthquakes.  It  consists  of  a  variety  of  offices  arranged 
round  three  quadrangular  courts.  Few  of  the  modern  im- 
provements have  been  introduced  here,  and  the  operation  of 
coining  is  still  in  a  rude  state.  The  Considddo,  a  spacious 
structure,  plastered  and  whitewashed,  in  which  the  commer- 
cial tribunal,  and  the  national  congress,  meet,  is  also  worthy 
of  notice.  Santiago  likewise  boasts  of  a  custom-house,  a 
theatre,  and  a  chingdno.  There  is  a  national  college,  too, 
occupying  what  was  formerly  one  of  the  Jesuits'  convents : 


1839.]  PRIVATE    DWELLINGS.  95 

and  another  of  these  edifices  is  used  for  the  public  library  and 
printing-office.  The  library  contains  several  thousand  printed 
volumes,  and  a  number  of  curious  manuscripts  relative  to  the 
Indian  tribes,  who  originally  occupied  the  country. 

Most  of  the  private  dwellings  in  Santiago  are  but  one  story 
high, — being  built  in  this  manner  on  account  of  the  earth- 
quakes. They  have  red  tiled  roofs  projecting  so  as  to  form 
a  piazza,  or  covered- way ;  and  the  outside  walls,  as  well  as 
those  around  the  orchards  and  gardens,  are  all  whitewashed 
over  every  year,  which  gives  them  a  peculiarly  neat  and  lively 
appearance.  The  houses  occupy  considerable  ground  ;  many 
of  them  take  up  one  sixth  part  of  a  quadra.  They  consist 
of  different  compartments,  or  suites  of  rooms,  ranged  round 
three  patios,  or  quadrangular  courts ;  the  first,  or  outer 
court,  is  usually  paved  with  pebbles  from  the  bed  of  the 
Maypocho  ;  the  second  is  commonly  laid  out  as  a  parterre, 
and  decorated  with  shrubs  and  flowers ;  and  the  third  is  used 
for  domestic  purposes.  A  wide  archway  opening  into  the 
front  patio,  is  open  during  the  day,  but  closed  at  night  by 
heavy  folding  gates.  The  windows  looking  into  the  two 
outer  courts,  are  protected  by  ornamental  iron  gratings ;  the 
windows  in  the  rear  court  are  generally  small  openings  in 
the  doors  also  covered  with  gratings.  The  two  fronts,  on 
either  side  of  the  gateway,  and  the  sides  facing  the  streets, 
where  there  are  not  blank  walls,  are  often  divided  into  rooms 
separate  from  the  apartments  occupied  by  the  family,  and 
rented  for  shops  and  fancy  stores. 

There  are  three  markets  in  the  city,  the  principal  one  of 
which  is  held  in  the  Bassordl,  a  large  open  space  covering 
four  or  five  acres,  at  the  foot  of  the  bridge.  The  area  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  low  building,  with  a  tile  roof,  supported  by 
columns.  Good  meat,  and  fruit  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds, 
can  be  procured  here.  The  other  markets  are  mere  movea- 
ble stands  at  either  end  of  the  Canada.  Meat,  kitchen 
vegetables,  fruits,  and  lucerne,  the  common  fodder  for  horses, 
are  continually  hawked  about  the  streets. 

Santiago  is  famous  for  its  fine  horses.     Large  quantities 


96  MARKETS.  [1839. 

of  stock  are  raised  on  the  extensive  grazing  grounds  near  the 
city,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  family  in  the  town  but  has  one 
or  more  horses.  These  animals  are  generally  well  broken, 
and  are  more  docile  than  those  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  aver- 
age price  of  a  horse  is  twelve  dollars,  but  when  thorough!} 
trained  they  command  as  high  prices  as  in  the  United 
States.  Beef  and  mutton,  of  the  finest  quality,  are  both 
cheap  and  abundant. 

The  inhabitants  of  Santiago  are  remarkably  obliging  and 
courteous  ;  somewhat  too  fond  of  their  chief  national  amuse- 
ments, dancing  and  music,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  addicted 
to  their  fashionable  game  of  monte,  yet,  withal,  orderly  and 
well-disposed.  They  are  sincerely  attached  to  the  devotional 
forms  and  ceremonies  of  their  religion.  No  obtrusive  exhi- 
bition of  this  feeling  is  made,  but  the  stranger  cannot  wel) 
avoid  noticing  it ;  even  though  it  may  be  common  in  most 
of  the  cities  and  towns  of  South  America.  It  is  particularly 
remarkable,  when  the  bells  of  the  cathedral  announce  the 
arrival  of  the  hour  for  the  oracion,  or  sunset  prayer.  The 
streets  are  then  filled  with  the  gay  and  lively  population,  and 
all  is  mirthful  and  joyous.  But  as  the  first  peal  echoes  from 
the  cathedral  tower,  everything  is  hushed  and  still,  as  if  some 
mighty  spell  had  been  thrown  over  the  city  ;  the  caballero 
reins  back  his  steed  on  his  haunches;  the  laughing  seiiorita 
hesitates  in  the  midst  of  her  witty  repartee  ;  the  artisan  suffers 
his  hammer  to  fall  silently  on  his  bench  ;  even  the  gamester 
pauses  in  his  throw  of  the  dice ;  and  in  the  pauses  of  the 
chimes,  the  cool  plash  of  the  water  falling  over  the  marble 
statutes  in  the  fountain,  may  be  heard  many  a  yard  from  the 
plaza. 

As  in  Valparaiso,  the  gentlemen  in  Santiago  follow  the 
European  fashions ;  but  the  ladies,  notwithstanding  the 
French  milliners  and  mantuamakers  who  have  immigrated 
to  Chili,  adhere  more  closely  to  the  customs  of  olden  time, — 
and  a  bonnet,  thanks  to  the  soft  atmosphere  and  beautiful 
climate  which  allows  them  to  dispense  with  this  incumbrance, 


1839.]  OTHER    TOWNS    IN   CHILI.  97 

is  almost  as  great  a  rarity  on  the  plains  of  Maypu,  as  it  would 
be  in  the  Feejee  Islands. 

Santiago  contains  about  sixty-five  thousand  inhabitants, 
anJ .  is  constantly  increasing, — a  fact  which  speaks  volumes 
in  favor  of  Chilian  industry  and  enterprise,  since  the  same 
cannot  be  said  of  another  inland  capital  in  South  America. 
Besides  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  there  are  several  other 
towns  in  Chili  of  considerable  note.  Coquimbo,  or  La  Serena, 
in  North  Chili,  has  a  population  amounting  to  nearly  ten 
thousand  ;  it  is  the  chief  port  of  the  mining  country,  and  its 
copper  is  esteemed  the  best  in  the  world.  The  town  is  re- 
markably clean,  and  well  laid  out — the  streets  intersecting 
each  other  at  right  angles.  It  has  several  churches,  a  public 
school,  and  a  hospital ;  the  houses  are  built  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  with  few  exceptions,  and  are  one  story  in  height. 
Numerous  gardens  of  fruit-trees  and  evergreens,  give  the 
place  a  refreshing  and  agreeable  look.  Huasco,  still  further 
to  the  north,  is  famed  for  its  rich  silver  mines.  Concepcion 
and  Valdivia,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  republic,  are  noted 
for  their  fine  harbors.  The  former,  was  once  a  flourishing 
town  containing  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  but  it  has 
latterly  declined  in  trade  and  manufactures,  and  the  popula- 
tion does  not  now  exceed  eight  thousand.  It  stands  on  a 
low  neck  of  land  between  the  river  Biobio  and  the  bay  of 
Concepcion ;  it  is  laid  out  like  Coquimbo,  and  the  houses 
are  constructed  in  the  same  manner  ;  previously  to  1835,  it 
possessed  a  large  cathedral  and  several  other  fine  buildings, 
but,  in  that  year,  these,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  town, 
were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  Valdivia  is  rather  an 
insignificant  collection  of  wooden  huts,  but  it  contains  five 
thousand  inhabitants,  and  has  the  finest,  and  one  of  the  most 
strongly  fortified  harbors,  in  the  South  Pacific  ;  this  consists 
of  an  estuary,  formed  by  the  Valdivia  and  several  smaller 
rivers,  entered  by  a  narrow  strait,  the  shores  of  which  are 
garnished  with  batteries,  mounting,  in  all,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  guns ;  ships  of  the  line  ride  here  in  safety — there  being 
from  six  to  seven  fathoms  of  water  in  the  centre  of  the  bay, 


98  MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS.  [1839. 

and  five  fathoms  near  the  shore.  The  town  is  about  sixteen 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Valclivia,  and  was  almost  ruined 
by  an  earthquake  in  1837.  It  is  the  capital  and  market 
town  of  the  province  of  Valclivia,  and  has  a  large  and  rapidly 
increasing  trade. 

(5.)  What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  style  of  dress 
prevalent  in  Valparaiso  and  Santiago,  is  applicable  to  the 
Chilefios  generally,  and  especially  so  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  larger  towns.  Elsewhere,  the  old  Spanish  costumes  are 
more  frequently  met  with  among  the  better  classes  ;  but  the 
dress  of  the  common  people  is  a  mixture  of  Spanish  and  In- 
dian. The  latter  are  fond  of  bright  colors.  The  males  wear 
a  blue  or  brown  poncho,  over  their  shirt  and  trowsers,  and 
a  steeple-crowned,  small  rimmed  hat,  beneath  which  is  a 
bright  cotton  handkerchief,  tied  on  with  strings  under  the 
chin.  In  very  warm  weather  the  tall  hat  is  laid  aside  for 
the  broad-leafed  sombrero.  The  women  wear  gowns  of 
calico  or  woolen  stuff,  and  mantillas,  or  bay  etas,  as  at- 
tractive in  color  and  quality,  as  the  ability  of  the  wearer  will 
permit  her  to  purchase.  In  the  mining  districts,  a  most  pic- 
turesque dress  is  worn  by  those  who  work  in  the  mines.  It 
consists  of  a 'long  shirt  of  dark  baize,  with  a  leathern  apron 
fastened  around  tbe  waist  by  a  bright-colored  sash  ;  very  broad 
trowsers ;  and  a  small  cap  of  scarlet  cloth  fitting  closely  to 
the  head. 

The  Chilians  possess  fewer  vices  than  the  Creoles  of  the 
other  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America,  but  they  are  fre- 
quently dissipated  and  profligate  in  their  habits,  and,  in  the 
towns,  much  too  fond  of  dress  and  display.  They  are  mod- 
erate in  their  food,  though  addicted  to  drinking  to  excess. 
They  are  less  indolent,  and  more  hardy  than  the  Castilian 
race  generally  ;  more  industrious  and  enterprising,  and  more 
of  a  money-getting  and  money-loving  people.  Kindness  and 
courtesy  characterize  their  intercourse  with  strangers ;  yet 
are  they  proud-spirited  and  high-mettled,  somewhat  jealous 
in  disposition,  quick  to  take  affront,  and  of  an  unforgiving 
temper 


1839.]  TOPOGRAPHY.  99 

As  in  Valparaiso  and  Santiago,  most  of  the  better  class  of 
private  dwellings  throughout  Chili,  are  built  of  adobes,  one 
story  in  height ;  the  habitations  of  the  peasantry,  and  of  the 
lower  classes  in  towns  and  cities,  are  mere  huts,  usually  hav- 
ing but  one  room,  constructed  of  reeds  and  mud,  and  thatched 
with  straw. 

Educational  improvement,  and  the  introduction  of  a  more 
refined  taste,  will,  doubtless,  produce  great  changes  in  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people  of  Chili ;  but,  while  earth- 
quakes continue  to  be  so  frequent,  it  is  questionable  whether  a 
finer  or  more  expensive  style  of  building  will  prevail.  Pru- 
dence and  economy,  in  neither  of  which  are  they  lacking,  will 
always  give  the  preference  to  the  safest  and  cheapest  mode. 

Most  of  the  Indian  population  continue  to  dwell  in  a  state 
of  independence  south  of  the  Biobio  ;  but  a  considerable  number 
live  in  missions.  The  former  belie,  in  almost  every  respect, 
the  highly- wrought  and  flattering  descriptions  in  the  Arau- 
cana  of  Ercilla  y  Zuniga ;  they  are  wild,  fierce,  and  intracta- 
ble, and  but  little  more  advanced  in  civilization  than  the  rude 
inhabitants  of  Patagonia. 

(6.)  In  the  northern  part  of  Chili,  the  country  rises  from 
the  coast  to  the  Great  Cordillera,  by  a  number  of  successive 
terraces  running  parallel  to  the  sea ;  but,  elsewhere,  it  is  a 
broad  expansion  of  the  mountainous  Andes,  spreading  forth 
its  spurs  and  branches  from  the  central  ridge  towards  the 
Pacific,  which  diminish  continually,  but  irregularly,  till  they 
reach  the  ocean.  These  ramifications  of  the  main  Cordillera 
are  generally  two  thousand  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  val- 
leys that  intersect  them,  and  seldom  less  than  one  thousand 
feet.  The  patches  between  the  ridges  constitute  the  finest 
portions  of  middle  Chili.  Some  of  the  valleys  are  broad,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  boasted  vale  of  Aconcagua,  one  of  the  most 
fertile  spots  on  the  American  continent.  North  of  30°  30', 
the  Cordillera  is  divided  into  separate  ranges,  inclosing  the 
immense  valley  of  Uspallata,  celebrated  more  particularly  for 
its  extensive  mineral  riches.     There  are  a  few  small  plains 


iOO  FERTILITY   OF   THE    SOIL.  [1839 

along  the  coast,  between  the  spurs  of  the  mountain  chains ; 
but  the  shores  are  mostly  high,  rocky,  and  precipitous. 

The  climate  of  Chili  is  equable  and  healthy.  In  the  sum- 
mer the  weather  is  remarkable  fine.  Day  after  day,  for 
weeks  and  months  together,  the  atmosphere  is  transparently 
pure  and  clear ;  save,  perhaps,  the  light  blue  haze  which 
sometimes  adds  a  new,  and  almost  unnecessary  charm,  to  what 
is  all  brightness,  gayety,  and  joy.  The  interior  is  much 
warmer  than  the  coast ;  at  Valparaiso,  the  thermometer 
ranges,  in  midsummer,  from  64°  to  72° ;  and,  at  Santiago, 
the  mean  summer  heat,  from  December  to  March,  is  about 
84i°  at  midday,  and  58°  at  night.  During  the  summer,  the 
wind  blows  steadily  from  the  southward,  and  a  little  off  the 
shore,  but  at  sunset  there  is  almost  always  a  cool  and  pleas- 
ant breeze.  No  rain  falls  in  the  summer ;  it  is  abundant, 
however,  through  the  winter  months,  from  June  to  September, 
in  the  southern  provinces.  No  snow  falls  along  the  coast, 
and  frost  is  very  rare.  North  of  Santiago  there  are  only  a 
few  occasional  showers  even  in  the  winter ;  and  in  the  arid 
province  of  Coquimbo,  no  rain  whatever  falls,  but  its  place 
is  occasionally  supplied  by  heavy  night  dews. 

Chili  abounds  in  small  rivers,  which  carry  off  the  melted 
snow  from  the  Andes,  but  it  has  none  capable  of  being  navi- 
gated to  any  extent,  except  the  Maule  and  the  Biobio. 

The  high  chain  of  the  Andes  is  chiefly  composed  of  argil- 
laceous schist,  and  the  lower  chains  and  groups,  of  granite. 
Sienitic,  basaltic,  and  felspar  porphyries,  serpentines  of  vari- 
ous colors,  quartz,  hornblende  and  other  slates,  pudding-stone 
and  gypsum,  are  found  in  the  Cordillera,  and  there  is  fine 
statuary  marble  in  the  department  of  Copiapo.  The  soil  of 
the  northern  provinces  is  sandy  and  saline,  and  probably  not 
one  fiftieth  part  of  the  north  half  of  the  country  can  ever  be 
cultivated.  In  the  central  provinces,  some  of  the  valleys  are 
considerably  inclined,  and  admit  of  irrigation  where  water  can 
be  procured  ;  but  the  hills  and  ridges,  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  are  dry  and  parched.  South  of  the  Maule,  the  pro- 
portion of  arable  land  is  greater,  and   the  soil  becomes  mora 


1839.]  PRODUCTIONS.  101 

stiff  and  loamy.  At  Concepcion,  in  about  37°  southern  lati- 
tude, the  plains  and  valleys  are  decked  with  the  brightest 
and  richest  flowers,  or  clothed  with  the  most  luxuriant  foli- 
age;  while  hills  and  mountains  are  woodt'd  jt^'.lihjsrf  .'SumrElits' 
with  stately  forest  trees.  In  the  latitude,  of  Valparaiso,  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  files', iJi}r^ijet.nCipth,»kj' 
is  only  in  the  cultivation  of  the  interval  lands,  that  the  hus- 
bandman finds  a  recompense  for  his  toil.  At  Coquimbo,  the 
sickly  grass  and  stunted  brushwood  which  alone  redeem  the 
hills  in  the  neighborhood  of  Valparaiso  from  the  curse  of  bar- 
renness, are  no  longer  to  be  found,  and,  in  their  stead,  are 
seen  only  a  short  wiry  grass,  and  a  feeble  apology  for  the 
prickly -pear.  At  Guasco,  vegetation  entirely  disappears ;  the 
country  is  diversified,  indeed,  with  hill  and  plain,  but  all  is 
one  vast  and  dreary  Sahara, — the  little  rivulets,  that  carry 
off  the  liquefied  snows  of  the  Andes,  sing  their  lullaby  in  vain, 
and  their  moisture  is  soon  evaporated  by  the  dry  scorching 
heat,  that,  vampire-like,  robs  the  earth  of  nourishment  and  life. 
Most  of  the  hard  woods  abound  in  the  forests  of  Chili ;  and 
laurels,  myrtles,  cypresses,  and  other  evergreens,  attain  to 
such  a  size  that  they  are  highly  valuable  and  useful  for  their 
timber.  The  mimosa  farnesiana,  and  the  algarob,  are  quite 
common ;  and  the  guillai,  from  the  bark  of  which  a  natural 
soap  is  made,  is  brought  to  the  towns  as  an  article  of  trade. 
The  palm  and  cinnamon  tree  were  formerly  met  with  in 
abundance,  but  they  are  now  rarely  seen.  Apricots,  figs, 
plums,  pears  and  cherries,  of  large  size  and  fine  flavor,  are 
produced  in  great  quantities.  Herbaceous  plants  and  flowers 
are  as  various  and  abundant,  as  they  are  rich  and  beautiful. 
The  climate  and  soil  of  southern  and  middle  Chili  are  pecu- 
liarly well  calculated  for  the  culture  of  the  cereal  grains. 
Wheat  is  the  principal  agricultural  staple,  and  is  largely  ex- 
ported from  the  central  provinces.  Barley  is  grown  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  in  the  south.  Little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
culture  of  corn.  All  kinds  of  pulse  and  culinary  vegetables 
are  raised,  and  potatoes  are  extensively  produced.*  The  vine 
*  The  potato  is  a  native  of  South  Chili. 


102  zoology.  [1839 

and  olive,  where  they  are  properly  cultivated,  yield  an  abun- 
dance of  good  fruit ;  but  the  manufacture  of  wine  and  on 
is  in  a  very  ruck  state. 

•.The.  iuVv?*  Agriculture  is  greatly  behindhand  in  Chili,  and 
the  implements  of  husbandry  are  of  the  most  primitive  models, 
"^the'-plew  Gobeists'of  the  partof  a  trunk  of  a  tree,  with  a  crooked 
branch  projecting  from  it  which  serves  as  a  handle ;  the  fore- 
part of  the  trunk  is  wedgeshaped,  and  has  a  flattish  pointed 
piece  of  iron  nailed  to  it  which  performs  the  double  duty  of 
colter  and  share.  For  the  harrow,  a  heap  of  brushes,  weighed 
down  with  stones,  is  substituted ;  and  the  blade-bone  of  a 
sheep  is  the  principal  implement  used  for  weeding  the  garden. 
The  greater  part  of  the  labor  at  the  haciendas,  or  farms,  is 
performed  by  oxen  ;  mules  being  principally  employed  in  car- 
rying burdens,  and  horses  kept  for  riding  and  similar  purposes. 
The  yoke  is  fastened  not  to  the  shoulders,  but  to  the  horns  of 
the  cattle,  according  to  the  ancient  Spanish  method.  Reap- 
ing is  done  with  a  rough  sickle,  and  the  grain  is  thrashed,  or 
stamped  out,  with  horses,  on  a  hard  dry  spot  of  ground. 
From  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand  bushels  are  thrashed  at 
one  time.  The  grain  is  generally  left  in  the  open  air  till  the 
rainy  season  begins. 

Cattle-breeding,  however,  is  probably  the  most  important 
branch  of  agricultural  industry.  In  the  middle  provinces, 
from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  head  of  cattle  are  often  fed  on 
a  single  hacienda,  and  the  smallest  grazing  farms  support 
from  four  to  five  thousand  head.  Horses,  mules,  asses,  goats 
and  sheep,  are  likewise  plentiful.  Hogs  are  not  so  common, 
and  are  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Llamas  and  guanacoes,  the  puma,  the  jaguar,  and  other 
wild  animals  found  in  South  America,  inhabit  Chili.  There 
are  likewise  numerous  varieties  of  the  monkey  tribe.  Foxes 
are  very  common.  A  kind  of  beaver  which  frequents  the 
rivers,  and  the  chinchilla  abounding  in  the  deserts  at  the 
north,  are  hunted  for  their  furs  which  are  much  prized.  The 
country  is  comparatively  free  from  venomous  quadrupeds,  and 
noxious  insects  and  reptiles ;  the  skunk  being  almost  the  only 


1839.]  COMMERCE.  103 

really  annoying  animal  to  be  found  there.  There  are  good 
fishing  grounds  on  the  coast,  at  which  whales,  dolphins,  cod, 
pilchards,  and  other  small  fish,  are  caught.  Now  and  then 
a  sea-dog  is  observed,  but  they  are  quite  rare.  Among  the 
birds  are  the  great  condor,  several  species  of  vultures,  the 
cormorant,  the  penguin,  the  cut-water  or  shear-bill,  and  the 
snipe.  Flocks  of  parrots  and  parroquets  are  found.  Small 
green  parrots,  not  larger  than  finches,  are  caught  in  the  in- 
terior, tamed,  and  sold  in  the  towns.  But  the  most  beautiful 
and  majestic  bird  is  the  swan,  which  is  often  seen  sailing  in 
the  bay  of  Valparaiso  ;  its  body  is  of  dazzling  white,  and  its 
neck  and  head  are  black. 

(7.)  Chili  is  said  to  be  the  only  American  state,  formerly 
subject  to  Spain,  whose  commerce  has  increased  since  the 
separation  from  the  mother  country  ;  and  this  single  fact  is, 
of  itself,  a  high  encomium  upon  the  enterprise  and  industry 
of  its  inhabitants.  Under  the  Spaniards,  Chili  had  no  inter- 
course but  with  Peru  and  Buenos  Ay  res;  now  the  vessels  of 
all  the  principal  commercial  nations  on  the  globe  frequent  her 
harbors.  From  1825  to  1829,  the  annual  average  receipts 
from  customs  were  less  than  nine  hundred  thousand  dollars ; 
in  1834,  they  amounted  to  nearly  one  and  a  quarter  million ; 
and  in  1841,  they  were  but  little  short  of  two  millions  of 
dollars.  Linens  are  imported  from  Germany ;  silks,  paper, 
leather,  wines  and  brandy,  from  France ;  manufactured 
goods,  hardware  and  iron,  from  Great  Britain ;  silks,  nankeens, 
tea  and  sugar,  from  China  and  the  East  Indies ;  tobacco,  oil, 
spermaceti  candles,  sugar,  and  manufactured  goods,  from  the 
United  States ;  and  various  products  from  the  different  coun- 
tries in  South  America.  The  principal  exports  are  bullion, 
copper,  hides,  tallow,  pulse,  wheat,  fruits,  and  drugs.  During 
the  year  ending  the  30th  of  June,  1847,  the  imports  from, 
and  exports  to  the  United  States,  amounted  to  about  one 
million  seven  hundred  dollars  ;  there  being  a  small  balance 
in  favor  of  Chili. 

Valparaiso  enjoys  the  honor  of  being  the  chief  seaport  town, 
and  is  commonly  called  "  The  Port,"  by  way  of  distinction. 


104  INTERNAL    TRADE.  [1839 

In  1834,  only  450  vessels,  aggregating  77,700  tons,  entered 
this  harbor,  and  in  1842  there  were  685  vessels,  617  of  which 
were  commercial,  aggregating  187,453  tons.  The  transit 
trade  is  enormous.  On  the  21st  of  May,  1842,  there  were 
over  seven  hundred  thousand  bales  of  merchandise,  valued  at 
upwards  of  seven  millions  of  dollars,  and  coined  metals  ex- 
ceeding three  millions,  at  the  custom-house  of  Valparaiso 
alone. 

The  internal  trade  of  Chili  is  not  very  great ;  there  being 
no  principal  towns  in  the  interior  except  the  capital.  Be- 
sides, there  are  few  accommodations  or  facilities  for  travelling. 
The  only  passable  roads  are  those  leading  from  Santiago  to 
Valparaiso  and  Concepcion ;  bridges  are  scarce  and  poorly 
constructed,  and  in  some  places  the  mountain  torrents  and 
ravines  are  crossed  by  Indian  hanging  bridges,  made  of  osiers 
and  thongs  of  raw  hide,  which  sway  to  and  fro  fearfully, 
with  the  weight  of  the  person  crossing  them.  Burdens  are 
chiefly  carried,  over  the  high  ridges  separating  the  valleys, 
on  the  backs  of  mules ;  on  the  main  roads,  heavy  merchan- 
dise is  hauled  in  ox-carts  constructed  entirely  of  wood,  strongly 
framed  and  pinned  together.  From  two  to  four  yoke  of  oxen 
are  attached  to  one  cart ;  the  box,  or  top, — similar  in  shape 
to  the  tilt  of  a  Pennsylvania  wagon,  but  not  so  large, — is 
made  of  wattles  covered  with  stout  bull's  hide.  The  vehicle 
principally  used  for  the  convenience  of  travellers  is  a  sort  of 
double  gig,  called  a  birloche,  carrying  two  passengers.  Three 
birlocheros,  or  drivers,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  horses,  accom- 
pany the  carriage.  One  horse  is  secured  in  the  shafts,  and 
one  on  either  side,  attached  to  the  vehicle  by  thongs  of  hide, 
is  ridden  by  a  driver.  The  horses  on  duty  are  relieved  by 
those  that  run  along  in  the  cabalgada.  These  conveyances, 
like  the  Irish  jaunting-car,  are  driven  at  break-neck  speed, 
and  the  traveller  is  fortunate  if  he  reaches  his  journey's  end 
without  any  injury.  The  paisdnos,  or  country  people,  bring 
their  wares  to  the  market  towns  in  panniers,  on  the  backs  of 
asses  or  mules,  which  they  delight  in  scourging  with  the  long 
poles  that  they  invariably  carry.     Hay,  mainly  consisting  of 


1839.]  mines.  105 

lucerne  grass,  is  brought  in  the  same  manner, — the  owner 
sitting  in  the  midst  of  his  load,  almost  out  of  sight,  and  his 
lower  extremities  completely  lost  in  the  brobdignag  stirrups, 
nearly  as  large  as  a  peck  measure,  that  dangle  beneath  him. 

Connected  with  the  commerce  are  the  manufactures  of  the 
country.  The  Chilenos  are  excellent  potters,  and  make  light 
and  strong  earthen  jars  that  ring  like  metal.  Hempen  cloths, 
common  hemp  cordage,  soap,  leather,  wine,  brandy,  tallow, 
charcoal,  and  some  rough  articles  of  copper  ware,  are  the 
chief  articles  manufactured.  Besides  the  acida  and  aguar- 
diente, or  wine  and  brandy,  made  from  the  grape,  a  potation 
called  chic  ha*  is  made  by  boiling  down  the  clear  grape-juice 
after  fermentation. 

(8.)  Though  so  large  a  portion  of  Chili  is  not  susceptible 
of  cultivation,  nevertheless,  even  there,  it  contains  vast  depos- 
itories of  wealth,  which  more  than  compensate  for  the  defi- 
ciency. The  country  is  extremely  rich  in  minerals.  Silver 
is  found  there  at  a  greater  elevation  than  any  other  metal ; 
it  is  also  met  with  in  the  valleys,  or  bowls,  in  the  lower 
ranges,  but  it  generally  decreases  in  quantity  in  proportion 
to  its  distance  from  the  Andes.  The  most  valuable  silver 
mine  is  that  of  Huasco.  Gold  occurs  altogether  in  alluvial 
formations,  and  most,  if  not  all,  the  rivers,  wash  down  this 
valuable  mineral.  Lead  and  iron  are  abundant,  but  are  not 
much  sought  after.  Zinc,  antimony,  manganese,  arsenic, 
tin,  alum,  salt,  nitre,  and  sulphur,  so  pure  as  not  to  require 
refining,  are  plentiful.  Coal  mines,  which  improve  as  they 
are  worked,  have  been  opened  near  Concepcion,  and  already 
form  a  principal  article  of  trade  and  consumption  at  Valpa- 

*  This  is  not  the  chica,  or  intoxicating  beer,  found  among  the  aborigines  of 
Chili  and  Peru.  That  was  produced  by  fermenting  maize  or  Indian  corn,  pre- 
pared in  a  most  disgusting  manner,  according  to  the  account  given  in  Acosta's 
Natural  History  of  the  Indies,  and  Frezier's  voyages  to  the  South  sea,  and  the 
western  coast  of  South  America, — the  saliva  of  the  females  being  used  for  barm 
in  producing  the  fermentation.  The  Abb6  Molina  says  it  was  customary  with 
the  aborigines,  when  burying  their  dead,  to  deposit  an  earthen  jar  filled  with 
chica  in  the  mound,  with  the  deceased,  to  subsist  him  on  his  journey  to  the  other 
world. 

5* 


106  MINING    SYSTEM.  ^1839 

raiso.  From  1790  to  1830,  gold  to  the  value  of  two  million, 
seven  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling,  and  about  half  that 
amount  of  silver,  were  produced  in  Chili.  In  1833,  the  gold 
coinage  at  the  mint  in  Santiago  amounted  to  three  hundred 
ninety-two  thousand,  five  hundred  dollars,  and  the  silver  to 
ninety-two  thousand  dollars. 

But  the  copper  mines  in  Coquimbo,  at  Jajuel,  near  San 
Felipe,  and  other  localities,  constitute  the  chief  sources  of 
national  wealth.  The  mineral  is  extracted  in  different  forms, 
— as  native  copper,  orange  oxide  of  copper,  carbonate  of  cop- 
per, and  copper  pyrites  associated  with  some  muriate  of  cop- 
per. In  a  few  mines,  masses  of  native  copper,  of  extraordi- 
nary magnitude  have  been  found.  In  1834,  nearly  42,860  quin- 
tals of  copper  and  copper  ore,  were  exported  from  Coquimbo 
alone  ;  the  total  value  of  the  product  in  all  Chili,  in  the  same 
year,  was  75,000  hundred  weight.  The  annual  exportation 
of  copper  is  now  worth  upwards  of  two  millions  of  dollars. 

Every  facility  and  encouragement  in  the  search  for  mines, 
is  afforded  by  the  government.  The  discoverer  may  work  a 
mine  in  any  ground  by  paying  five  shillings  sterling ;  and 
before  paying  this,  he  may  try,  even  in  the  garden  of  another 
man,  for  the  space  of  twenty  days.  At  the  copper  mines,  the 
laborers  undergo  the  severest  hardships  for  a  trifling  remun- 
eration ;  one  pound,  sterling,  a  month,  together  with  food, 
being  the  usual  compensation.  In  winter  and  summer,  they 
begin  work  at  early  dawn,  and  leave  off  at  dark.  But  little 
time  is  allowed  for  meals.  The  food  furnished  to  the  miners 
consists  of  sixteen  figs  and  two  small  loaves  of  bread  for 
breakfast,  boiled  beans  for  dinner,  and  broken  roasted  wheat 
grain  for  supper.  Once  a  week,  very  rarely,  but  never  oftener, 
they  are  provided  with  the  hard  dried  beef  of  the  country, 
called  charqui. 

There  are  two  classes  of  laborers, — the  barreteros,  or  min- 
ers, who  work  the  lode,  and  the  apires^  who  carry  the  ore 
upon  their  backs  to  the  surface.  The  latter  perform  the  most 
difficult  and  laborious  part  of  the  work.  According  to  a  gen- 
eral regulation,  the  apire  is  not  allowed  to  halt  for  breath, 


1839.]  DEPARTURE    FROM    VALPARAISO.  107 

except  the  mine  is  six  hundred  feet  deep.  With  a  lighted 
candle  in  a  cloven  stick  grasped  in  his  hand,  and  over  two 
hundred  pounds  of  ore  on  his  back,  twelve  times  in  the  day, 
where  the  mine  is  not  over  eighty  yards  deep,  the  apire  climbs 
the  notched  trees  placed  in  a  zig-zag  line  up  the  shaft,  and 
during  the  intervals  is  employed  in  breaking  and  picking 
ore.  Yet,  notwithstanding  this  great  tax  upon  his  physical 
powers,  he  appears  healthy  and  cheerful.  On  reaching  the 
surface  with  his  carpdcho  he  is  nearly  overcome,  and  the 
perspiration  rolls  down  in  streams ;  but  after  depositing  his 
burden  on  the  pile  of  ores,  a  few  seconds  serve  to  revive  him, 
and  he  again  descends  the  mine  at  a  quick  pace,  and  with  a 
light  step. 

Two  principal  persons — the  proprietor,  and  the  liabilitddor 
— are  usually  concerned  in  a  mine.  The  proprietor  is  the 
actual  miner ;  he  resides  at  his  hacienda  near  the  mine,  the 
working  of  which  he  superintends,  and  supplies  his  laborers 
with  vegetables  and  meat  from  his  farm.  The  liabilitddor 
is  the  capitalist,  who  resides  at  one  of  the  seaport  towns,  and 
manages  the  financial  affairs  of  the  partnership.  The  melt- 
ing-house is  generally  built  on  the  hacienda,  and  where  the 
mine  is  distant,  the  ore  is  brought  from  it  on  the  backs  of 
mules. 

(9.)  The  Porpoise  sailed  from  Valparaiso  for  Callao  on  the 
26th  of  May,  and  the  remainder  of  the  squadron  got  under 
way  on  the  6th  of  June.  The  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish 
came  to  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Callao,  under  the  island  of 
San  Lorenzo,  on  the  18th  of  June,  and  the  Vincennes  joined 
them  on  the  20th. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

(1.)  San  Lorenzo.  Callao. — (2.)  Lima.  Public  Buildings  and  Private  Resi- 
dences. Its  Inhabitants. — (3.)  Other  Principal  Towns  in  Peru.— (4.)  History 
Of  Peru.  Civil  Dissensions. — (5.)  The  Peruvians.  Traits  and  Characteris- 
tics. Mode  of  Building.  Vehicles  for  Travelling  and  Carrying  Burdens. — 
(6.)  Topography.  Mineral  Wealth. — (7.)  Climate.  Agricultural  Products. — 
(8.)  Commerce  and  Manufactures. — (9.)  Birds  and  Animals. — (10.)  Sailing 
of  the  Exploring  Squadron. 

(1.)  San  Lorenzo  is  a  small,  long-shaped,  barren  island, 
which  protects  the  southwest  side  of  the  bay  of  Callao.  It 
is  about  fifteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  intersected, 
throughout  its  whole  length,  by  a  ridge  of  sharp  crested  hills, 
the  highest  of  which  are  nearly  thirteen  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Few  or  no  signs  of  vegetation  are  to  be 
seen.  Seals  and  sea-otters  inhabit  the  steep  rocks  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  island,  and  flocks  of  water-fowl  make 
their  nests  on  the  desolate  shore.  On  the  south,  San  Lorenzo 
is  separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  from  a  small  rocky  island 
called  El  Fronton,  and  between  it  and  the  coast  of  the  main- 
land, is  an  extensive  shallow  two  miles  wide,  termed  the 
Camotal.  Two  centuries  ago,  the  Camotal  was  dry  land, 
upon  which  large  quantities  of  camotes  (sweet  potatoes)  were 
raised,  but  was  completely  inundated,  either  in  the  great 
earthquake  of  1687,  or  in  that  of  1630.  The  geological  ap- 
pearances presented  on  the  island  and  along  the  main  coast 
indicate  a  gradual  rising  of  the  land  since  its  submersion, 
but  sufficient  facts  have  not  yet  been  ascertained,  to  estab- 
lish any  reliable  or  satisfactory  data.  The  only  object  of 
attraction  which  San  Lorenzo  contains,  is  the  burying- ground 
of  foreign  seamen  who  are  not  of  the  Catholic  faith.  The 
graves  are  covered  with  white  stones,  and  a  white  board, 


1839.]  HARBOR    OF    CALLAO.  109 

placed  at  the  head  of  each,  contains  the  name  of  the  person 
interred  beneath,  and,  in  many  instances,  poetic  inscriptions, 
commemorative,  alike,  of  his  virtues,  and  of  the  friendship  of 
his  surviving  comrades.* 

The  bay  of  Callao  is  one  of  the  largest  and  calmest  on  the 
western  coast  of  South  America.  The  roadstead  is  decidedly 
the  best  in  Peru  ;  there  being  good  anchorage  in  from  seven 
to  ten  fathoms.  In  former  times,  a  raft  or  float,  called  the 
balsa,  formed  of  two  long  skin  bags,  blown  up  like  bladders, 
and  covered  with  a  light  platform,  was  used  to  load  and  un- 
load vessels ;  afterwards  a  rude  pier  was  constructed,  behind 
which  vessels  of  heavy  burden  could  discharge  or  receive  car- 
goes, in  perfect  security  from  the  breakers ;  and,  more  re- 
cently, a  fine  mole  has  been  erected,  surrounded  by  an  iron 
railing.  The  beach  is  flat,  and  for  the  most  part  shingly ; 
about  the  mouths  of  the  Rimac  and  the  Rio  de  Chillon,  two 
small  rivers  that  debouch  into  the  bay,  it  is  somewhat  marshy. 
The  harbor  is,  or  rather  was,  well  fortified.  Two  massive 
fortresses  built  in  low  situations,  extending  far  out  into  the 
sea,  once  commanded  the  harbor  and  its  entrances,  and  the 
plain  between  Callao  and  Lima.t  The  northern  fortress  con- 
sists of  two  castles,  the  largest  of  which  the  Spaniards  named 

*  Some  of  these  inscriptions  are  as  quaint  as  those  on  the  tomb-stones  in  the 
old  English  churchyards.  One  of  the  wooden  monuments,  erected  to  the  memory 
of  Thomas  Hedrick,  a  lad  belonging  to  the  U.  S.  ship  of  the  line  North  Carolina, 
has  the  following : 

"  In  vain  had  youth  its  flight  impeded, 
And  hope  its  passage  had  delayed  ; 
Death's  mandate  all  has  superseded, — 
The  latest  order  Tom  obeyed." 

Another,  reared  above  the  remains  of  one  of  H.  B.  M.  Royal  Marines,  says : 

"  I  'm  here  at  rest  from  busy  scenes ; 
I  once  belonged  to  the  Royal  Marines; 
I  'm  now  confined  within  these  borders, 
Remaining  here  for  further  orders." 

f  The  principal  fortress  is  now  used  for  custom-house  purposes,  and  tide- 
waiters  and  messengers,  utterly  guiltless  of  everything  like  cleanliness,  occupy 
the  places  once  honored  by  the  presence  of  the  brave  Rodil  and  his  gallant 
brethren  in  arms. 


110  APPEARANCE    OF    THE    TOWN.  [1839. 

Real  Felipe,  but  since  the  Revolution  it  has  been  called  El 
Castillo  de  la  Independencia ; — it  has  two  round  towers, 
wide,  but  not  high,  spacious  courtyards,  and  a  deep  ditch 
which  can  be  filled  with  water  from  the  sea.  The  southern 
fortification  is  called  El  Castillo  del  Sol.  Before  the  War  of 
Independence,  the  two  together  mounted  four  hundred  pieces 
of  cannon,  many  of  them  of  very  large  calibre  ;  but  they  are 
now  dismantled  and  decayed ;  the  armaments  have  disap- 
peared ;  the  cross  and  shield  of  Castile  and  Leon  no  longer 
float  above  their  ruins,  and  the  galeOns  which  once  poured 
an  unbroken  tide  of  wealth  into  the  coffers  of  old  Spain  have 
forever  vanished.  Gloomy  witnesses  are  these  relics  of  the 
past,  of  ancient  Castilian  pride,  and  power,  and  wealth— of 
modern  lethargy  and  retrogradation  ! 

Callao  is  comparatively  of  modern  origin.  The  ancient 
town  bearing  the  same  name  stood  a  little  nearer  the  ocean, 
and  was  completely  destroyed  and  submerged  by  the  dread- 
ful earthquake  of  1746 ;  it  contained,  at  that  time,  four 
thousand  inhabitants,  barely  two  hundred  of  whom  escaped. 
It  has  often  been  said  that  the  old  town  could  be  seen  beneath 
the  waves,  on  a  calm  day  and  with  a  clear  sky;  and  Captain 
Wilkes  seems  to  have  adopted  this  opinion,  probably  without 
a  very  careful  examination,  in  his  Narrative  of  the  Exploring 
Expedition.*  Dr.  Von  Tschudit  and  other  intelligent  travel- 
lers have  repeatedly  examined  the  Mar  brava — the  spot  de- 
signated as  the  locality  of  the  ruins — but  without  discovering 
the  least  trace  of  these  chateaux  en  Espagne.  The  story  is, 
doubtless,  all  a  mere  fiction,  originating  like  many  another 
marvel,  which,  though  equally  unfounded,  has  not  been  with- 
out believers. 

Modern  Callao  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  a  projecting 
tongue  of  land.  It  contains  about  five  thousand  inhabitants, 
and  begins  to  wear  the  appearance  of  a  populous  town ;  yet 
it  is  damp  and  dirty  in  the  winter,  dry  and  dusty  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  excessively  filthy  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.     The 

*  Vol.  I.  p.  235.        f  Travels  in  Peru,  (Wiley  and  Putnam's  edition,)  p.  33. 


1839.]  ROAD    TO    THE    CAPITAL.  Ill 

principal  street,  parallel  with  the  beach,  is  paved  in  a  misera- 
ble manner ;  the  others,  with  the  exception  of  that  leading 
to  Lima,  are  mean,  narrow  lanes.  The  houses  are  slightly 
built,  and  are  usually  one  story  high ;  the  walls  are  con- 
structed of  adobes,  or  of  reeds  plastered  over  with  loam  or 
red  clay  ;  the  azoteas,  or  flat  roofs,  consist  of  a  framework 
of  reeds  with  straw  mats  laid  upon  them.  In  order  to  ensure 
privacy,  the  windows  are  generally  in  the  roof;  they  are  mere 
trap-doors,  with  wooden  gratings,  closed  by  shutters  on  the 
inside.  The  houses  are  all  whitewashed  outside  and  in,  and 
most  of  them  are  furnished  with  clumsy  verandas  and  flag- 
staffs. 

Very  little  attention  is  paid  anywhere  to  comfort  and  clean- 
liness. Heaps  of  offal  and  rubbish  are  suffered  to  accumulate 
in  the  streets,  around  which  the  dogs  and  buzzards  congre- 
gate in  droves.  Unshorn  and  unwashed  padres  jostle  each 
other  on  the  trottoir.  Groups  of  lazy,  idle  soldiers,  consist- 
ing of  Indians,  negroes,  and  mulattoes, — all  attired  like  raga- 
muffins,— may  be  seen  collected  about  every  dirty  and  mis- 
erable cafe  ;  while  their  officers,  in  popinjay  costume,  saunter 
along  the  mole,  or  lounge  at  the  Custom-house.  Fowls  and 
hogs  are  free  commoners  in  door  and  out.  The  orange- women, 
who  sit  all  day  long  in  front  of  their  houses,  beside  the  rich 
and  luscious  fruit  that  tempts  the  passer-by,  when  not  en- 
gaged with  their  chaffering  customers,  are  busily  occupied  in 
hunting  for  vermin  on  their  own  persons ;  and  the  fine  ladies 
over  the  way,  who  thrum  their  guitars,  or  exhibit  their  finery 
on  the  paseo,  in  the  after  part  of  the  day,  would  scarcely  be 
recognized  in  their  slatternly  costume  in  the  morning. 

Callao  derives  most,  if  not  all,  its  importance,  from  its  ex- 
cellent harbor,  and  its  proximity  to  Lima,  from  which  it  is 
about  six  miles  distant ;  and  should  the  country  ever  be  freed 
from  the  misrule  of  military  demagogues,  it  may  yet  become 
one  of  the  most  populous  and  important  seaports  on  the 
Pacific.  A  broad,  and  what  was  formerly  a  well  paved  road, 
runs,  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  from  the  Castle  of  Independence 
to  the  Callao  Gate  of  Lima.     Omnibuses  built  in  Newark, 


112  lima.  [1839. 

New  Jersey,  ply  regularly  between  the  city  ana  the  port. 
For  more  than  half  the  distance,  the  road  is  flanked  on  either 
hand  by  sandy  and  uncultivated  fields,  or  low  brushwood ; 
but  about  one  mile  from  the  capital  commences  the  Alameda 
del  Callab,  through  which  the  road  passes, — a  charming 
promenade,  provided  with  beautiful  shade  trees,  and  stone 
seats  for  the  weary  foot-passenger,  and  bordered  with  beauti- 
ful gardens  and  luxuriant  fruit  trees.  Less  than  half  a  mile 
from  the  castle  is  the  small  village  of  Bella  Vista ;  beyond 
this  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Indian  town ;  and  midway 
between  the  harbor  and  the  city  are  the  convent  of  la  Virgen 
del  Carmen,  a  chapel,  and  a  Tambo.  The  Tambo  is  an  inn, 
and,  were  it  among  us,  would  probably  be  styled  "  The  Half- 
way-House." Among  the  Peruvians,  however,  it  is  called 
La  Legua — The  League — which  conveys  the  same  idea,  as 
the  house  is  a  Spanish  league  distant  from  either  town. 

(2.)  Lima  is  built  in  an  amphitheatre  formed  by  the  spurs 
jutting  out  from  the  great  chain  of  the  Andes,  near  the  eastern 
side  of  a  broad  plain  which  slopes  gradually  down  to  the 
Pacific,  and  is  elevated  nearly  five  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  lies  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Rimac, 
from  which  the  modern  name  of  the  city  was  derived  by  a 
corrupt  pronunciation.  The  larger  part  of  the  town — the 
city  proper — is  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  and  is  con- 
nected with  its  suburb  of  San  Lazaro,  or  the  fifth  section,  on 
the  opposite  shore,  by  an  excellent  stone  bridge  of  six  arches, 
furnished  with  recesses  and  seats,  and  forming  a  delightful 
and  favorite  promenade.  The  city  is  about  two  miles  long 
from  east  to  west — from  the  Gate  of  Maravillas  to  the  Mon- 
serrate — and  a  mile  and  a  quarter  broad.  The  plain  on 
which  it  stands  slopes  from  the  east  to  the  west.  Like  other 
Spanish  towns  in  South  America,  it  is  laid  out  with  great 
regularity,  in  quadras,  or  squares  of  houses,  the  sides  of 
which  average  from  140  to  145  varas*  The  streets,  gen- 
erally about  thirty-four  feet  wide,  intersect  each  other  at 

*  Each  vara  is  about  thirty-three  inches  English  measure. 


1839.]  THE    PLAZA   MAYOR.  113 

right  angles,  and,  in  the  older  and  principal  part  of  the  city, 
run  from  south-east  to  north-west,  so  that  the  walls  of  the 
houses  cast  a  shade  both  in  the  morning  and  afternoon.  At 
noon,  there  can  be  no  shade,  as  the  city  is  situated  in  lati- 
tude 12°  south. 

Through  the  centre  of  most  of  the  streets  in  Lima,  there 
runs  a  stream  of  water,  three  feet  wide,  which  is  the  recepta- 
cle of  all  the  garbage,  refuse  and  filth,  thrown  from  the  pri- 
vate dwellings ;  yet,  as  there  are  buzzards  and  dogs,  without 
number,  to  perform  the  part  of  scavengers,  the  nuisance  is 
not  so  intolerable  as  it  would  otherwise  be.  The  streets 
generally  are  paved  with  round  pebbles,  and  the  sidewalks 
are  flagged ;  but  the  latter  are  almost  always  in  bad  repair. 

Ever  since  the  foundation  of  the  Peruvian  capital,  by 
Francisco  Pizarro  and  his  fellow  adventurers,*  it  has  been 
celebrated  for  the  beauty,  richness,  and  splendor,  of  its  public 
edifices ;  and,  in  this  respect,  it  has  long  maintained  a  posi- 
tion, second  only  to  the  proud  city  reared  above  the  ruins  of 
"  the  Venice  of  the  Aztecs."  In  passing  through  the  Peri- 
phery, or  outer  circle  of  the  town,  the  stranger  is  not  favora- 
bly impressed  by  the  groups  of  old  houses,  whose  dirty  and 
dilapidated  walls  seem  ready  to  topple  down  at  the  first  blast 
of  the  tempest ;  but  on  entering  the  Plaza  Mayor,  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  business  part  of  the  city,  his  eye  rests  with  delight 


*  Historical  records  differ  widely,  in  regard  to  the  year  in  which  Lima  was 
founded;  some  asserting  it  to  be  1534,  and  others  1535.  Garcilaso  of  Cuzco, 
Herrera,  Montalvo,  and  Ulloa,  adopt  the  latter  date ;  and  Mr.  Prescott,  in  his 
Conquest  of  Peru,  (vol.  II,  p.  24,)  does  the  same,  on  the  authority  of  Quintaiia, 
and  Bernabe  Cobo.  Dr.  Von  Tschudi,  however,  (Travels  in  Peru,  p.  42,  nota,) 
says  the  city  was  founded  in  1534.  According  to  Captain  Wilkes,  also,  (Nar- 
rative, vol.  I,  p.  242,)  the  title  of  the  book  in  the  city  hall  of  Lima  containing  the 
signatures  of  the  viceroys,  fixes  the  date  of  the  organization  of  the  municipality 
at  1534.  There  has  likewise  been  considerable  dispute  in  regard  to  the  day  of 
the  month;  but  it  is  now  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been  the  6th  of  Jan- 
uary, (the  day  of  the  Epiphany,)  as  the  original  name  of  the  city  was  Ciuddd 
de  los  Reyes,  (City  of  the  Kings  ;)  and  in  Germany,  and  other  countries  on  the 
European  Continent,  the  day  of  the  Epiphany  was  called  "  the  festival  of  the 
three  holy  Kings."  At  the  time  of  the  foundation,  it  will  be  recollected,  Charles 
V,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  also  King  of  Spain. 


114  PUBLIC    BUILDINGS.  [1839 

on  the  lofty  spires,  the  swelling  domes,  and  splendid  facades, 
rising  everywhere  around  him,  and  he  then  begins  really  to 
appreciate  the  fact,  that  he  is  treading  on  "  the  silver  soil  of 
Peru." 

The  great  square  forms  a  quadrangle,  each  side  of  which 
is  510  feet  long.  It  is  unpaved,  but  the  ground  is  covered 
with  fine  sand.  From  each  of  the  four  corners  run  two 
handsome  streets,  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  In  the 
centre  of  the  Plaza,  is  a  massive  bronze  fountain,  of  three 
basins,  forty  feet  high,  and  raised  on  a  level  table  of  masonry 
forty  feet  on  each  side.  From  the  middle  basin  rises  a  pil- 
lar, surmounted  by  a  figure  of  Fame,  represented  in  the 
attitude  of  spouting  the  water  from  her  trumpet.  In  the 
other  basins,  the  water  is  thrown  from  the  mouths  of  four 
lions.  The  pillar  and  figures  were  cast  in  1650,  by  the 
order  of  the  then  reigning  viceroy,  Count  de  Salvatierra. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  square,  is  the  government  palace, 
a  mean  unsightly  structure,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
viceroys,  but  now  appropriated  to  the  courts  of  justice,  and 
other  government  offices.  It  is  a  square  building,  and  the 
front  facing  the  Plaza  is  disfigured  by  a  long  range  of  shops, 
called  La.  Rivera,  above  which  is  a  balcony.  On  the  west 
side  of  the  square,  are  the  Cabildo,  or  senate-house,  and  the 
city  jail ;  and  on  the  south  there  is  a  range  of  private  dwell- 
ings, with  balconies  looking  upon  the  Pldza.  The  cathe- 
dral and  the  archbishop's  palace  occupy  the  east  side  of  the 
square.  The  latter  has  a  fine  facade,  but  the  former  is,  by 
far,  the  most  imposing  edifice  in  Lima.  The  foundation 
stone  of  the  cathedral  was  laid  by  Pizarro  on  the  18th  of 
January,  1534:  ninety  years  elapsed,  however,  before  its 
completion,  and  it  was  finally  consecrated,  with  great  pomp 
and  ceremony,  on  the  19th  of  October,  1625.  The  remains 
of  its  founder  were  deposited  beneath  its  walls. 

This  edifice  has  a  front  of  186  feet, and  is  320  deep.  At 
either  corner,  in  front,  there  is  an  octagonal  tower,  200  feet 
high,  resting  on  a  base  elevated  40  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  multitudinous  ornaments   profusely  scattered  in  and 


1839.]  THE    CATHEDRAL.  115 

about  the  building,  detract  very  much  from  the  effect  that 
so  large  a  structure  would  naturally  produce  ;  yet  they  indi- 
cate the  vastness  of  the  means  at  the  command  of  its  projec- 
tors. Says  Caldcleugh,  in  his  Travels  in  South  America  :* 
"  The  riches  which  have  been  lavished  at  various  times  upon 
the  interior  of  this  edifice,  are  scarcely  to  be  credited  any- 
where but  in  a  city  which  once  paved  a  street  with  ingots  of 
silver  to  do  honor  to  a  new  viceroy.  The  balustrades  sur- 
rounding the  great  altar,  and  the  pipes  of  the  organ,  were  of 
silver.  It  may  be  mentioned,  as  a  proof  of  the  abundance 
of  silver  ornaments,  that  in  1821,  one  and  a  half  ton  of  silver 
was  taken  from  the  churches  in  Lima  without  being  missed, 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  state."  The  columns,  or  pillars, 
forming  the  balustrade,  are  of  Ionic  form,  twelve  feet  high 
and  one  and  a  half  thick.  Above  the  altar  is  a  massive  sil- 
ver gilt  crown.  The  tabernacle  is  seven  feet  and  a  half  high, 
and  composed  of  wrought  gold,  set  with  a  profusion  of  dia- 
monds and  emeralds.  On  either  side  of  the  altar  there  are 
tall  silver  candelabra,  each  weighing  over  seven  hundred 
pounds.  The  seats  and  pulpit  in  the  choir  are  exquisitely 
carved.  The  interior  of  the  cathedral  is  divided  into  three 
naves,  and  it  is  paved  with  large  tiles.  The  roof  is  richly 
pannelled  and  carved,  and  rests  on  arches  springing  from  a 
double  row  of  square  stone  pillars.  On  high  festival  days, 
the  priests  wear  robes  and  ornaments  embroidered  in  gold, 
and  set  with  precious  stones,  to  correspond  with  the  magnifi- 
cent decorations  of  the  altar  at  which  they  minister. 

Besides  the  cathedral,  there  are  upwards  of  fifty  other 
churches  and  convents,  which  cover  full  one  fourth  of  the 
area  of  the  city.  .  Conspicuous  among  the  former,  are  those 
of  San  Lazaro,  San  Francisco,  and  Santo  Domingo — the  last 
two  belonging  to  convents  of  the  same  name.  San  Lazaro 
boasts  of  a  tasteful  exterior,  and  its  interior  is  rich,  but  ex- 
ceedingly chaste.  The  Franciscan  convent  is  the  largest 
monastic  establishment  in  the  city.  It  stands  near  the  Plaza 
Mayor,  and  covers,  including  all  its  buildings,  two  entire 
*  Vol.  II,  p.  56. 


116  MONASTIC    ESTABLISHMENTS.  [1839. 

quadras.  Its  church,  next  in  size  to  the  cathedral,  is  deco- 
rated with  great  splendor.  The  convent  of  Santo  Domingo 
is  probably  the  wealthiest  in  Peru. — its  yearly  revenue,  de- 
rived mostly  from  the  ground-rents  of  houses  in  Lima,  exceed- 
ing seventy  thousand  dollars.  The  steeple  of  the  church  of 
Santo  Domingo  is  the  loftiest  in  the  city  ;  it  is  188  feet  high, 
and  is  distinctly  visible  at  the  distance  of  three  leagues.  The 
interior  of  the  church  is  gorgeously  adorned,  and  its  grand 
altar  is  almost  as  splendid  as  that  of  the  cathedral. 

There  are  sixteen  nunneries  in  Lima,  the  largest  of  which 
is  the  Monasterio  de  la  Concepcion :  it  has  an  annual  revenue 
of  upwards  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  but  is  more 
celebrated  for  its  wealth,  than  for  the  piety  or  vestal  perfect- 
ness  of  its  inmates.  There  are  several  establishments,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  conventual  rules  are  rigidly  observed. 

In  addition  to  the  convents  and  nunneries,  there  are  beate- 
rios,  which  pious  women  who  desire  to  lead  a  cloistered  life 
without  taking  the  veil  may  enter  and  quit  at  pleasure ;  and 
also,  cdsas  de  exercicio,  into  which  females  retire  during  Lent, 
to  perform  acts  of  penance.  For  the  other  sex,  there  are 
cells  in  the  convent  of  Recoleto. 

Lima  also  possesses  eleven  public  hospitals  and  two  found- 
ling asylums.  The  two  largest  hospitals,  San  Andres  and 
Santa  Ana,  contain  nearly  four  hundred  beds  each.  At- 
tached to  San  Andres  is  a  botanic  garden,  and  adjoining  it  is 
the  medical  college  of  San  Fernando,  established  in  1809. . 

The  second  large  square  in  the  city  is  the  public  market- 
place. Before  the  war  of  Independence  it  was  known  as  the 
Plaza  de  la  Inquisition ;  it  is  now  called  the  Plazuela  de 
la  Independencia.  On  this  square  are  the  Palace  of  the  In- 
quisition, now  occupied  as  a  jail  and  a  store-house  for  provi- 
sions, and  the  University.  The  latter  was  founded  under  a 
decree  of  Charles  V,  dated  in  1551.  The  exterior  of  the 
building  is  by  no  means  imposing,  but  it  has  a  spacious 
quadrangular  court,  entered  by  a  lofty  door,  along  the  sides 
of  which  are  pillared  corridors.  On  the  walls  of  the  corri- 
dors there  are  allegorical  paintings  in  fresco,  representing  the 


1839.]  UNIVERSITY.  117 

different  branches  of  science,  underneath  which  are  inscribed 
apposite  quotations  from  classical  authors.  The  lecture  rooms 
open  into  the  corridors  ;  and  in  the  left  angle  of  the  court  are 
great  double  doors  opening  into  the  Aula,  or  principal  hall. 
On  the  walls  of  the  Aula  are  hung  portraits  of  distinguished 
scholars.  The  university  is  partly  supported  by  congress, 
and  partly  by  the  produce  of  an  annual  bull-bait!  There 
are  only  between  thirty  and  fifty  students,  and  most  of  the 
professorships  are  mere  sinecures.  Besides  the  university, 
there  are  several  colleges  in  the  city,  one  of  which  (San  Car- 
los) has  about  one  hundred  students.  There  are  also  good 
Lancasterian,  Latin,  and  primary  schools,  and  a  number  of 
private  ones  conducted  by  Europeans.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  causes,  growing  out  of  the  social  and  political  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  which  have  a  tendency  to  check  or  hinder 
intellectual  improvement,  the  cause  of  education  is  slowly, 
perhaps,  yet  steadily  progressing. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  square  of  Independence  is  the  Mint, 
at  which  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  are 
annually  coined.  Near  the  convent  of  San  Pedro,  the  ancient 
Colegio  maximo  of  the  Jesuits,  is  the  National  Library, 
founded  in  1821,  one  of  the  first  fruits  of  the  Revolution.  It 
contains  not  far  from  thirty  thousand  volumes,  embracing 
many  valuable  theological  and  historical  works,  and  is  open 
to  the  public  daily,  Sundays  and  Fridays  excepted.  In  the 
left  wing  of  the  library  building  is  the  national  museum,  still 
in  its  infancy. 

Lima  likewise  boasts  of  a  theatre,  more  notorious  for  the 
myriads  of  fleas  that  infest  it,  than  for  the  skill  and  talent 
displayed  in  its  performances ;  a  coliseo  de  gallos,  or  cock- 
pit ;  a  tennis-court ;  and  an  amphitheatre,  Plaza  firme  del 
Acho,  in  the  suburb  of  San  Lazaro,  where  bull-fights  are 
held. 

With  the  exception  of  the  suburb  of  San  Lazaro,  and  a 
part  of  the  north  side  of  the  city  proper,  Lima  is  surrounded 
by  a  brick  wall,  between  eighteen  and  twenty  feet  high,  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  nine  feet  at  the  top 


118  SPANISH    COLONIZATION.  1839.] 

It  was  originally  built  in  1585,  and  repaired  in  1807  ;  but  it 
is  now  in  a  state  of  complete  dilapidation,  and  furnishes  an- 
other sad  commentary  on  the  history  of  Spanish  colonization. 
Similar  mementos  of  past  magnificence,  of  the  faded  splen- 
dor of  the  viceroy alty,  arrest  the  attention  full  often  in  the 
streets  of  Lima.  To  the  philosopher  and  historian,  these  de- 
caying memorials  of  a  by-gone  age  furnish  matter  for  serious 
thought  and  reflection. 

Nearly  a  hundred  years  elapsed,  after  Pizarro  and  his  com- 
panions unfurled  the  victorious  bander  a  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
over  the  ancient  palaces  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  before  the  Pil- 
grim Founders  of  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  landed  on  the 
rock-bound  coast  of  Accomack.*  The  former  found  a  land 
blushing  in  loveliness  and  beauty,  possessing  a  genial  tem- 
perature, yielding  with  scanty  labor  an  abundant  product  of 
luscious  fruits  and  valuable  grains,  and  abounding  in  silver, 
and  gold,  and  precious  stones ;  countless  galeons,  freighted 
with  the  treasures  which  they  poured  into  the  coffers  of  the 
mother  country,  soon  crossed  the  sea,  and  seemed  to  fore- 
shadow a  long  and  prosperous  career  for  those  who  should 
come  after  them.  The  latter,  fleeing  from  the  tyranny  and 
persecution  of  kingcraft  and  priestcraft,  were  welcomed  to  a 
bleak  and  inhospitable  clime,  by  the  howling  of  the  wintry 
wind  and  the  shrill  war-whoop  of  the  murderous  savage. — 
Centuries  have  passed  away: — indolence  and  effeminacy  on 
the  one  hand,  have  ended  in  corruption  and  anarchy;  and 
industry  and  enterprise  on  the  other,  have  terminated  in  hap- 
piness and  prosperity.  The  descendants  of  the  Puritans  have 
not  only  preserved  their  patrimonial  inheritance  unimpaired ; 
they  have  beautified  and  improved  it  to  an  unexampled  de- 
gree ;  they  have  carried  the  arts  and  institutions  of  their 
forefathers  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  offspring 
of  the  Spanish  colonists  already  begin  to  experience  the  evils 
springing  from  wealth  too  easily  acquired  ;  enervated  by  lux- 
ury and  licentiousness,  though  still  clinging  with  superstitious 

*  Accomack  was  the  ancient  Indian  name  of  Plymouth. 


1839.]  FORTIFICATIONS.  119 

veneration  to  the  shrines  of  their  ancestors,  they  lack  the 
spirit  to  preserve  them  from  the  ravages  of  premature  decay  ; 
their  peculiar  traits  and  characteristics  as  a  people  are  fast 
disappearing ;  their  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  foreign  merchants  ; 
and  their  government,  nominally  a  republic,  is,  in  fact,  the 
worst  kind  of  oligarchy. 

Formerly,  the  city  wall  of  Lima  had  nine  gates.  But  six 
of  these  are  now  open,  the  remainder  having  been  walled  up. 
At  each  of  the  gates  is  stationed  a  custom-house  guard, 
mainly  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  unstamped  silver.  The 
wall  was  also  designed  for  a  fortification,  and  was  once  put 
in  a  condition  to  be  mounted  with  artillery.  It  is  now  en- 
tirely valueless  in  this  respect,  and  the  only  work  of  defence 
really  worthy  the  name,  is  the  pretty  little  castle  of  Santa 
Catalina,  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  city,  between  the  gates 
of  Cocharcas  and  Guadelupe,  and  about  two  hundred  yards 
from  the  wall.  The  castle  is  flanked  by  two  bastions,  and 
its  internal  arrangements  exhibit  more  of  cleanliness  and 
regularity  than  are  usually  met  with. 

Few  of  the  private  houses  in  Lima  are  -more  than  one 
story  high,  and  those  exceeding  that  have  the  upper  walls  of 
cane,  or  wattled  reeds,  plastered  over  with  clay,  and  white- 
washed or  painted.  The  lower  walls  are  usually  built  of 
adobes.  The  better  class  of  dwellings  correspond  with  one 
another  in  the  style  of  building.  The  fronts  are  mostly  quite 
plain,  but  occasionally  a  house  may  be  seen  with  a  finely 
ornamented  facade.  There  are  two  doors  in  front :  one  called 
the  azaguan,  forming  the  principal  entrance,  and  the  other 
leading  to  the  coch era,  or  coach-house.  Above  the  door  to  the 
cockera,  or  on  the  side  of  the  main  door,  there  is  often  a  small 
chamber,  with  a  window,  closed  by  a  wooden  railing,  looking 
towards  the  street.  At  this  window  the  ladies  of  the  family 
frequently  place  themselves,  to  see  and  be  seen,  and  if  young 
and  pretty,  to  be  admired,  even  if  they  do  not  admire  in  their 
turn.  Entering  the  azaguan,  you  find  yourself  in  a  broad 
court,  called  the  patio,  on  either  side  of  which  there  are  small 
rooms      Faring  the  azaguan  is  the  main  dwelling-house, 


120  PRIVATE    HOUSES.  1839  J 

usually  surrounded  by  a  balcony.  Two  large  folding  doors 
lead  into  the  sdla,  or  hall,  which  is  generally  carpeted  with 
straw  matting,  and  furnished  with  a  sofa,  a  hammock,  and 
several  chairs.  From  the  hall  a  glazed  door  opens  into  the 
cuddro,  or  drawing  room ;  among  the  wealthier  classes  this 
room  is  always  elegantly  furnished.  Adjoining  the  cuddro, 
are  the  sleeping  rooms,  the  dining  room,  and  nursery.  AH 
these  apartments  communicate  with  the  traspdtio,  an  inner 
court  yard  laid  out  as  a  garden,  the  walls  of  which  are  taste- 
fully adorned  with  decorative  paintings  in  fresco,  some  illus- 
trating scenes  from  scripture,  others  the  festival  of  the  Aman- 
caes,  and  others  representing  various  subjects,  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  painter  or  the  fancy  of  his  employer.  Beyond 
the  traspdtio  is  the  kitchen  and  stable, — the  latter  often  noth 
ing  more  than  a  mere  yard,  or  corral. 

The  roofs  are  uniformly  flat.  The  best  houses  have  a  large 
terrace,  called  the  azotea,  over  the  sdla  and  cuddro,  which  is 
paved  with  free  stone,  or  thin  baked  bricks,  and  surrounded 
by  a  railing.  The  azotea  serves  as  a  play-ground  for  the 
children,  is  ornamented  with  flower  pots,  and  covered  with 
an  awning  to  shade  it  from  the  sun.  Where  there  is  an 
upper  story,  the  roof  is  composed  of  mats  and  bamboos,  cov- 
ered over  with  mortar  or  a  light  layer  of  earth.  As  in  Cal- 
lao,  the  windows  of  some  of  the  rooms  are  in  the  roof.  The 
other  windows,  generally  few  in  number,  are  on  each  side  of 
the  house-door ;  they  are  ornamented  with  casings  of  carved 
work,  in  stone  or  wood,  and  often  have  richly  gilt  lattices. 

It  was  once  the  custom  in  Lima  to  bury  the  dead  in  graves 
dug  within  the  churches,  but  the  heat  of  the  climate  forbade 
the  continuance  of  this  custom,  and  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury, a  general  cemetery,  styed  the  Panteon,  was  established 
outside  the  walls,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city,  on  the  high 
road  leading  to  the  Sierra  de  Tarma.  It  is  a  square  inclos- 
ure,  neatly  laid  out  in  walks  and  gardens.  The  surrounding 
walls  are  filled  with  niches  for  the  reception  of  corpses.  Bur- 
ials are  not  permitted  to  take  place  after  noon.  The  bodies 
of  the  rich  are  deposited  in  coffins,  but  those  of  the  poor  are 


1839.]  INHABITANTS    OP    LIMA.  121 

provided  with  winding  sheets  only.  Unslaoked  lime  is  ap- 
plied to  the  remains  to  accelerate  their  decay,  and  to  prevent 
contaminating  the  atmosphere  with  noxious  gases. 

Various  estimates  have  been  formed  in  regard  to  the  popu- 
lation of  Lima.  The  wide  difference  in  the  accounts  that 
have  been  published,  may,  probably,  be  attributed  to  the  re- 
markable fluctuations  that  have  taken  place  since  the  Revo- 
lution. The  most  reliable  statement  in  regard  to  the  number 
of  inhabitants  may  be  found  in  the  tax  register  drawn  up  in 
1836,  under  the  protectorate  of  Santa  Cruz,  in  which  it  is 
said  to  be  a  little  over  fifty-four  thousand.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent, however,  that  the  population  has  diminished,  rather 
than  increased,  during  the  last  forty  years.  In  1810  there 
were  said  to  be  nearly  ninety  thousand  inhabitants  in  the 
city,  and  about  seventy  thousand  in  1826.  No  one  familiar 
with  the  history  of  the  country,  or  the  scenes  which  have 
transpired  there,  need  wonder  at  this.  Earthquakes  and 
epidemic  diseases  have  swept  away  their  thousands ;  many 
more  have  fallen  victims  to  the  social  and  political  anarchy 
which  have  prevailed,  to  the  bloody  war  of  Independence, 
and  the  sanguinary  tumults  that  have  since  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  country ;  and  numbers  of  families  belonging  to 
the  ancien  regime  have  either  voluntarily  expatriated  them- 
selves, or  been  included  in  some  compulsory  decree  of  ban- 
ishment. 

The  present  population  of  the  city  is  made  up  of  white 
Creoles,  the  descendants  of  foreigners,  principally  Spaniards ; 
Indians,  descended  from  the  ancient  Peruvians ;  and  people 
of  color,  consisting  of  the  offspring  of  whites  and  Indians, 
called  Mestizos, — of  whites  and  Mulattoes,  called  Cuarterons, 
— of  Indians  and  Negroes,  called  Chinos, — and  of  Negroes 
and  Mulattoes,  or  Mestizos,  called  Zambos.  To  these  are  to 
be  added  about  five  thousand  slaves,  mostly  Zambos,  and  not 
far  from  one  thousand  ecclesiastics,  lay  and  monastic. 

(3.)  Among  the  other  principal  towns  in  Peru,  are  Cuzco, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Incas,  Arequipa,  Cerro  di  Pasco, 
Guamanga,  Huacho,  Huancavelica,  and  Truxillo,  or  Tru- 

6 


122  cuzco.  [183?, 

jillo.  Cuzco  is  about  four  hundred  miles  from  Lima,  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  It  is  situated  in  an  extensive  valley, 
at  the  foot  of  some  lofty  spurs  of  the  Andes,  nearly  twelve 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  Its  population  is 
about  twenty-five  thousand,  and  consists  mostly  of  Indians. 
They  are  exceedingly  industrious,  and  are  celebrated  for 
their  skill  in  embroidery,  painting  and  sculpture.  Cuzco  is 
famed  for  its  magnificent  ruins,  particularly  those  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  for  its  splendid  religious  edifices. 
The  cathedral  church  and  convent  of  St.  Augustine  are  said 
to  be  the  finest  in  South  America.  The  Dominican  convent 
is  also  an  imposing  structure,  and  is  raised  on  walls  that 
originally  formed  part  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun ;  the  high 
altar,  according  to  Ulloa,  standing  on  the  very  spot  occupied 
by  the  golden  image  of  the  Peruvian  deity.  There  are  six 
other  convents  in  the  city,  five  churches,  three  monasteries, 
four  hospitals,  a  university,  and  three  collegiate  schools. 
Most  of  the  private  dwellings  were  either  constructed  before 
the  conquest  of  the  city  by  Pizarro,  in  1554,  or  have  been 
built  of  the  stones  that  once  formed  part  of  the  edifices  of  the 
ancient  Peruvians.  On  a  hill  north  of  the  town,  are  the  ruins 
of  a  large  fortress,  principally  constructed  of  the  angular  Cy- 
clopean stones  so  frequently  found  among  the  ruins  of  Eastern 
cities.  A  great  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed,  during  the 
siege  shortly  after  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  Pizarro,  but 
there  is  still  left  much  to  interest  the  scholar  and  antiqua- 
rian. 

Arequipa  has  a  population  of  thirty  thousand  souls.  It 
lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ornate,  on  the  road  leading  from 
Lima  to  the  south,  thirty  miles  east  of  the  Pacific,  and  two 
hundred  miles  southwest  from  Cuzco.  It  was  founded  by 
order  of  Pizarro,  in  1536.  The  houses  are  strongly  and  neatly 
built,  though,  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes, 
but  one  story  in  height.  A  cathedral,  a  fine  bronze  fountain 
.in  the  Plaza  Mayor,  a  college,  and  several  convents,  are  the 
only  objects  of  particular  attraction  in  the  city.  Its  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  through  its  port,  Mollendo.     Though  this 


1839.]  CERR0   DI    PASCO.  123 

town  is  elevated  upwards  of  seven  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  its  environs  are  highly  cultivated  and  remark- 
ably fertile.  Beautiful  groves  and  gardens  dot  the  landscape ; 
hedges  and  fruit  trees,  trimmed  en  espalier,  are  occasionally 
to  be  seen ;  and  the  shrubs  and  flowers  exhibit  a  luxuriance 
of  foliage,  and  a  gorgeous  brilliancy  of  color,  not  surpassed  in 
any  other  locality  in  Peru. 

For  more  than  two  centuries,  Cerro  di  Pasco  has  been 
famed  throughout  the  world  for  its  rich  silver  mines.  It  con- 
tains, at  times, when  the  mines  yield  abundantly,  some  eighteen 
thousand  inhabitants,  and  at  others  not  more  than  five  or  six 
thousand.  It  is  situated  in  an  irregular  basin-shaped  hollow 
in  the  table  land  of  Bombon,  on  the  mountain  chain  of  Ola- 
chin,  and  is  13,673  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  At  a  dis- 
tance, the  town  presents  quite  a  picturesque  appearance,  but 
a  nearer  approach  dissolves  the  illusion.  The  streets  are 
filthy,  and  mere  narrow  and  crooked  lanes.  Some  few  of  the 
dwellings  are  European  in  style,  and  well-built ;  yet  in  close 
proximity  to  them  are  clusters  of  miserable  adobe  huts  and 
hovels,  covered  with  thatch,  but  nearly  destitute  of  chimneys 
and  windows.  The  town  is  so  burrowed  under,  by  the  nu- 
merous adits  leading  to  the  main  lodes,  some  of  which  are 
almost  fathomless  and  usually  half  full  of  water,  that  a  ram- 
ble through  it,  even  in  broad  daylight,  is  attended  with  no 
little  danger. 

Two  hundred  and  ten  miles  southeast  of  Lima,  on  the 
road  to  Cuzco,  is  Guamanga,  formerly  called  San  Juan  de 
la  Victoria,  or  de  la  Fr  outer  a.  It  was  founded  by  Pizarro, 
and  stands  in  the  middle  of  an  extensive  and  beautiful  plain. 
The  houses  are  constructed  with  neatness  and  taste,  mainly 
of  stone,  and  have  pretty  orchards  and  gardens  attached  to 
them.  It  has  several  large  squares,  and  the  streets  are  spa- 
cious and  convenient.  The  population  is  said  to  be  fifteen 
thousand.  There  is  a  cathedral  in  the  city,  and  several  other 
churches  and  convents.  The  climate  is  very  fine,  and  the 
situation  is  regarded  as  being  quite  healthy.  Huacho  is  a 
small  village,  containing   some   five   thousand  inhabitants, 


124  OTHER    IMPORTANT    TOWNS.  [1839. 

which,  since  the  war  of  Independence,  has  been  dignified 
with  the  title  of  city.  It  is  situated  on  the  coast  north  of 
Lima.  Four  fifths  of  the  population  are  Indians,  and  the 
remainder  mestizos.  The  natives  employ  their  time  in  fish- 
ing, agriculture,  and  the  rearing  of  poultry.  Every  Friday, 
large  caravans  of  Indian  women,  mounted  on  mules,  start 
for  Lima,  with  fowls,  ducks,  and  turkeys.  Two  bunches  of 
fowls,  consisting  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  each,  are  attached 
by  every  chola  to  the  pommel  of  her  saddle,  one  hanging 
down  on  either  side.  About  two  days  and  a  half  are  re- 
quired to  perform  the  journey,  and  the  poor  creatures  are 
kept  all  the  while  in  this  position,  except  when  the  caravan 
is  halted. 

Huancavelica  lies  about  midway  between  Lima  and  Gua- 
manga.  Its  population  is  estimated  at  about  twelve  thou- 
sand. This  town  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  rich  quick- 
silver mines ;  they  have  been  worked  for  almost  three  hun- 
dred years,  and  are  still  highly  productive.  Truxillo  is  the 
principal  town  in  North  Peru,  and  contains  not  far  from  ten 
thousand  inhabitants.  It  lies  on  the  coast,  and  was  named 
after  the  birth  place  of  the  conqueror  of  Peru,  Francisco 
Pizarro. 

(4.)  The  handful  of  Spaniards,  commanded  by  Pizarro 
and  Almagro,  entered  Peru  in  1532.  Availing  themselves 
of  the  dissensions  among  the  Indian  tribes  then  occupying 
the  country,  as  Hernando  Cortes  and  his  warriors  had  already 
done  in  ancient  Azteca,  they  at  first  formed  an  alliance  with 
Atahualpa,  or  Atabalipa,  the  reigning  Inca,  and  afterwards 
deprived  him  of  his  liberty  and  put  him  to  death.  This  deed 
of  cruelty  having  been  perpetrated,  the  whole  country  was 
rapidly  overrun  and  reduced  to  submission.  It  was  after- 
wards formed  into  a  viceroyalty,  and  continued  subject  to  the 
dominion  of  Spain  until  the  year  1821.  The  inhabitants 
were  long  firm  in  their  loyalty,  and  the  royalists  were  event- 
ually put  down,  only  by  a  strong  Chilian  army  under  San 
Martin,  in  cooperation  with  the  Peruvian  patriots.  The  inde- 
pendence of  Peru  was  proclaimed  at  Lima,  on  the  28th  of 


1839.]  WAR    OF    INDEPENDENCE.  125 

July,  1821,  under  the  auspices  of  San  Martin,  who  was  de- 
clared protector  of  the  new  republic  and  invested  with  dicta-* 
torial  power. 

In  1823,  San  Martin  retired,  and  Riva-Aguero  was  pro- 
claimed president.  At  the  same  time,  General  Jose  La 
Mar  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Peruvian  division  of  the 
great  liberating  army  under  General  Bolivar.  The  Spaniards 
and  royalists  had  now  rallied,  and  the  patriot  garrison  of  Cal- 
lao  hoisted  Spanish  colors,  in  February,  1824.  Aided  by 
General  Bolivar, — then  president  of  Bolivia,  and  clothed 
with  supreme  military  power  in  Peru,  under  the  title  of  Li- 
bertado?', — and  a  strong  Colombian  force  under  General  Sucre, 
the  republicans  firmly  maintained  their  ground.  Meanwhile. 
Riva-Aguero  had  been  driven  from  the  presidency  by  Boli- 
var, and  a  new  constitution  formed  on  the  model  of  that  of 
the  United  States  had  been  adopted,  which  was  not  to  take 
effect,  however,  till  the  expiration  of  his  dictatorship. 

After  sustaining  a  number  of  reverses,  the  patriots  were 
finally  victorious  over  their  enemies,  who  were  defeated  by 
Bolivar  at  Junin,  on  the  6th  of  August,  1824,  and  by  Gen- 
erals Sucre  and  La  Mar,  on  the  9th  of  December  following, 
at  Ayacucho.  This  secured  the  independence  of  Peru,  al- 
though the  Spaniards,  under  General  Rodil,  remained  in 
possession  of  the  fortress  at  Callao  till  the  22d  of  January, 
1826,  when  they  were  forced,  by  famine,  to  surrender.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  struggle  for  liberty,  the  country  was  in  a  most 
wretched  condition.  Civil  war,  at  all  times  dreadful,  had 
little  here  to  mitigate  its  horrors.  Life  and  property  were 
insecure  ;  murders  and  assassinations  were  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  the  most  glaring  outrages  were  committed  with 
impunity.  Reckless  cruelty  was  exhibited,  alike  by  the  gen- 
eral in  the  field,  and  the  statesman  in  the  cabinet ;  and  the 
prevailing  looseness  in  private  morals  was  only  equalled  by 
the  licentiousness  openly  exhibited  in  public  life.  No  change 
for  the  better  took  place  while  Bolivar  maintained  his  author- 
ity as  dictator. 

In  January,  1827,  the  Peruvians  revolted,  and  freed  them- 


126  CIVIL    DISSENSIONS.  [1839. 

selves  from  the  presence  of  the  dictator  and  his  armed  legions. 
The  constitution  established  by  Bolivar  was  now  abrogated, 
and  that  of  1823  restored ;  and  General  La  Mar, — a  man 
not  more  pure  and  honest  in  private  life,  than  just  and  blame- 
less in  his  public  career, — was  then  elevated  to  the  presidency 
by  the  Peruvian  Congress.  La  Mar  remained  at  the  head 
of  affairs  till  June,  1829,  when  he  was  deposed  by  General 
La  Fuente,  in  consequence,  as  was  alleged,  of  the  imbecility 
displayed  by  the  former  at  the  battle  of  Tarqui,in  the  month 
of  February  previous,  at  which  the  Peruvians  had  been  de- 
feated by  the  Colombians  under  General  Sucre.  But,  in 
fact,  La  Mar  was  too  pure-minded  to  hold  the  reins  of  gov 
vernment,  in  a  country  where  military  success  was  the  only 
passport  to  public  favor,  and  among  a  people  so  easily  duped 
by  the  demagogues  who  readily  pandered  to  their  vices  and 
ministered  to  their  corrupt  tastes  and  depraved  appetites. 
The  deposition  was,  really,  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  be- 
tween General  Gamarra,  through  whose  treachery  or  coward- 
ice the  battle  of  Tarqui  was  lost,  General  La  Fuente,  and 
General  Santa  Cruz,  then  the  President  of  Bolivia.  The 
conspirators  were  completely  successful  in  obtaining  the  con- 
trol of  the  government.  In  August,  1829,  Gamarra  was 
elected  President,  and  La  Fuente  Vice  President,  of  Peru. 

Gamarra  remained  in  office,  though  much  dissatisfaction 
was  evinced  in  regard  to  the  mode  in  which  he  administered 
the  government,  till  1833,  when  he  resigned,  shortly  before 
the  expiration  of  his  constitutional  term  of  service.  It  was 
evidently  his  intention  to  establish  a  strong  central  govern- 
ment and  place  himself  at  its  head;  but  his  friend  and  minion, 
Bermudez,  whom  he  supported  for  the  presidency  as  his  suc- 
cessor, being  himself  ineligible  for  a  second  consecutive  term, 
was  defeated  by  General  Orbejoso.  The  latter,  owing  to  the 
distracted  state  of  the  country,  called  in  the  assistance  of 
Santa  Cruz,  who  was  made  Supreme  Protector  of  Peru.  He 
divided  the  country  into  two  separate  republics,  North  and 
South  Peru,  but  they  were  ultimately  reunited.  The  war 
with  Chili  ensued ;  Gamarra  was  again  restored  to  powe* 


1839.]  POPULATION    OF    PERU.  127 

at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  in  1839  Santa  Cruz  wag 
driven  into  Bolivia.  Peru  was  then  involved  in  a  war  with 
Bolivia,  which  was  at  length  brought  to  a  close,  through  the 
mediation  of  Chili,  by  the  treaty  of  Puno,  concluded  on  the 
7th  of  June,  1842.  Since  that  date  one  military  chieftain 
after  another  has  gained  the  ascendency,  and  assumed  to  di- 
rect the  government.  At  this  time  General  Castilla  exercises 
the  functions  of  the  presidential  office.*  He  belongs  to  the 
centralists,  but  the  plan  of  government  they  propose  to  adopt, 
if  honestly  and  justly  administered,  is  probably  the  best  cal- 
culated to  secure  the  internal  peace  and  tranquillity  of  the 
country,  at  least  while  so  great  a  laxity  of  morals  prevails  in 
public  and  private  life,  and  the  masses  seem  so  unwilling,  or 
so  unable,  to  comprehend  the  great  principles  of  self-govern- 
ment. 

(5.)  Different  estimates  have  been  made,  and  different  ac- 
counts published,  in  regard  to  the  population  of  Peru.  It 
cannot  vary  far  from  1,700,000.  Full  three  fourths  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Indians,  or  of  Indian  extraction,  and  the  re- 
mainder are  white  Creoles  and  Negroes.  The  white  Creoles 
are  of  moderate  stature,  yet  well-formed,  and  slender  in  figure. 
Their  complexions  are  almost  colorless,  but  usually  quite  fair ; 
their  hair  and  eyes  are  black ;  and  their  features  strongly 
marked.  The  men  are  as  feeble  in  mind  as  in  person ;  they 
look  prematurely  old ;  they  are  effeminate,  irascible,  incapa- 
ble of  long-continued  physical  or  mental  exertion,  and  as  im- 
patient of  contradiction  as  a  Milesian.  Though  not  entirely 
destitute  of  frankness,  yec  they  know  how  to  dissemble.  They 
are  just  the  men  for  demagogues  to  excite  and  inflame;  just 
the  men  for  emeutes  and  conspiracies.  Smoking,  gaming, 
and  cock-fighting,  are  the  chief  occupations  of  their  lives,  yet, 
withal,  are  they  singularly  abstinent  in  the  use  of  intoxicat- 

*  President  Castilla  is  by  no  means  firmly  seated  in  power.  Several  conspir- 
acies have  recently  been  formed,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Generals  San 
Roman  and  Torrico,  both  prominent  federalists,  and  noted  revolutionists,  to  over- 
turn the  existing  state  of  affairs.  One  project  was  set  on  foot  as  late  as  the  month 
of  February,  1849,  but  the  conspirators  were  arrested  before  they  had  time  to 
mature  their  plans. 


128  THE    WHITE    CREOLES.  [1839, 

ing  drinks.  The  wealthy  devote  their  whole  time  to  idleness 
and  amusement,  and  the  poor,  who  are  compelled  to  earn 
their  own  livelihood,  pursue  some  light  handicraft,  which  will 
afford  them  plenty  of  leisure  for  gossip  and  recreation. 

But  what  Nature  has  denied  to  the  men,  she  has  bestowed, 
with  a  liberal  hand,  upon  the  Creole  women.  In  the  streets 
of  Lima,  at  almost  every  hour  of  the  day,  you  may  discover 
rich  and  rare  specimens  of  female  loveliness  and  beauty.  The 
fair  Limeiia  can  boast  of  a  complexion  of  velvety  softness 
white  and  clear  as  the  purest  Parian  marble,  and  beneath 
whose  polished  surface  the  delicate  tracery  of  each  vein  and 
artery  is  distinctly  visible.  Eye-brows  exquisitely  pencilled, 
and  long  silken  lashes,  shade  a  pair  of  orbs  dark  as  the  moon- 
less night,  that  charm  and  fascinate,  alike  when  kindling 
in  anger,  or  glowing  with  the  fire  of  an  unworthy  passion,  as 
when  beaming  with  the  blessed  light  of  an  honest  and  holy 
love.  Masses  of  luxuriant  hair,  black  as  the  plumage  of  the 
raven,  fall  in  long  wavy  plaits  down  the  finely  arched  necky 
and  over  the  nicely  rounded  bust  and  shoulders.  Teeth  of 
pearly  whiteness,  a  form  of  small  but  elegant  proportions,  and 
a  neatly  turned  foot  and  ankle,  complete  the  picture,  and 
form  a  tout  ensemble  not  often  seen  in  other  climes,  and, 
when  once  seen,  not  easily  forgotten. 

To  these  personal  attractions  must  be  added,  a  captivating 
deportment,  ease  and  grace  of  manners,  amiability  of  temper, 
and,  generally  speaking,  a  far  greater  degree  of  intelligence 
than  is  found  in  the  other  sex.  The  glowing  breath  of  the 
tropics,  indeed,  has  given  to  every  passion  and  emotion,  a 
depth  and  intensity  not  common  in  colder  countries,  and  if 
the  Peruvian  sefiorita  hates,  the  feeling  is  not  idly  manifested ; 
but  if  she  loves,  it  is  with  an  unselfish  abandon,  a  generous 
and  trustful  confidence,  and  a  whole-souled  devotion,  that 
would  startle  the  prudishness  of  northern  dames  and  belles. 
One  knowing  anything  of  the  national  character,  would  not 
be  apt  to  fancy  that  the  Creole  women  were  notable  house- 
keepers. In  fact,  almost  everything  is  left  to  the  domestics, 
particularly  in  Lima ;  and  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  clean- 


1839.]  PERUVIAN   LADIES.  129 

liness,  in  private  dwellings,  except  in  the  sola  and  cuddro, 
the  more  public  apartments.  More  regard  for  personal  neat- 
ness, however,  is  exhibited.  The  Limefia  cleans  her  teeth 
several  times  a  day,  with  the  raiz  de  dientes  (root  for  the 
teeth) ;  considerable  time  is  spent  at  the  toilet ;  and  perfum- 
ery is  lavishly  used.  The  climate  naturally  produces  indo- 
lence ;  and,  while  at  home,  she  is  fond  of  reclining  on  a  sofa, 
or  swinging  in  a  hammock,  and,  at  the  same  time,  enjoying  a 
plate  of  sweetmeats,  or  smoking  a  cigar.  Visiting,  promen- 
ading, the  theatre,  the  ball,  and  the  concert,  occupy  the  rest 
of  her  time.  When  she  has  passed  the  prime  of  life,  and 
her  beauty  begins  to  fade,  the  missal  takes  the  place  of 
the  mirror,  and  she  devotes  herself  to  works  of  piety  and 
charity. 

Travellers  in  Spain  have  often  remarked  upon  the  fondness 
of  the  people  for  scriptural  names.  This  custom  is  carried 
to  a  greater  extent  even,  in  Peru,  than  in  the  mother  coun- 
try. Marias,  Conceptions,  Asunpions,  Natividads,  and 
Josefas,  are  quite  common.  A  girl  born  on  Candlemas-day 
is  called  Candeldria.  If  a  child's  birth  day  is  the  first  day 
of  the  year,  it  is  called  Jesus,  or  Jesusito,  if  a  male,  and 
Jesusita  if  a  female.  A  married  woman  does  not  assume 
the  surname  of  her  husband,  except  as  an  addition  to  her 
own  family  name ;  as  for  instance,  if  Dona  Maria  Dolores 
Castilla  should  marry  Don  Lafuente,  she  would  style  herself 
Doha  Maria  Dolores  Castilla  de  Lafuente. 

Little  more  can  be  said  of  the  mixed  races,  than  that  they 
resemble  similar  class.es  the  world  over.  The  bad  qualities 
of  their  progenitors  are  more  frequently  copied  than  their 
good  qualities ;  their  vices  are  pretty  sure  to  be  inherited,  but 
their  virtues  generally  prove  a  lapsed  legacy.  In  the  remote 
districts,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Indian  tribes  may  occa- 
sionally be  found,  who  preserve  unimpaired  the  nobler  and 
better  traits  and  characteristics  of  their  ancestors,  but  it  is 
oftener  the  case  that  they  exhibit  the  demoralization  and  cor- 
ruption consequent  on  their  intercourse  with  the  whites. 
The   mestizos  constitute  the   most  active  and   enterprising 

6* 


130  THE    MIXED    RACES.  [1839 

part  of  the  population,  but  the  zambos  are  lazy,  sensual,  and 
vicious. 

The  divers  shades  of  blood,  and  the  peculiar  and  distinct 
characteristics,  found  among  the  different  races  composing 
the  population  of  Peru,  have  tended  in  a  great  measure  to 
produce  the  disaffection  and  turbulence  which  have  so  long 
prevailed  in  the  country.  For  many  years,  it  has  been  every- 
where known  as 

"  The  field  of  freedom,  faction,  fame,  and  blood ;" 

and  it  will,  doubtless,  continue  to  remain  so,  till  the  prejudice 
of  birth  and  caste  is  done  away.  Something  has  been  already 
gained  in  this  respect,  and  we  have  much  to  hope  for,  so  far 
as  regards  the  future,  in  the  prevailing  religion.  The  Cathol- 
icism of  Rome  is  a  sad  leveller  of  distinctions,  out  of  the  pale 
of  the  church  ;  and  its  worship  teaches — nowhere  more  forci- 
bly than  in  Peru — the  important  truth,  that  there  is  a  power 
before  which  the  hereditary  taskmaster  and  the  hereditary 
bondsman  are  alike  equal.*  In  Lima,  when  the  great  bell 
of  the  cathedral  announces  the  raising  of  the  host,  during  the 
performance  of  high  mass,  business  and  conversation  of  all 
kinds  are  suspended ;  every  sound  is  hushed  ;  the  humble  tire- 
woman uncovers  her  head,  and  kneels  beside  the  proud  sehora 
whom  she  serves — and  the  old  decrepit  beggar  utters  the 
same  prayer  with  the  haughty  cavalier  who  bears  a  prince's 
ransom  on  his  shoulders.  A  similar  effect  is  witnessed,  at 
evening,  as  the  church  bells  sound  for  the  oration;  and 
when  the  prayers  are  ended,  each  one  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  salutes  his  nearest  neighbor, — whether  he  be  slave 
or  freeman,  rich  or  poor, — with  the  kindly  greeting,  "  Buehas 
noches  !"t 

Until  quite  recently,  the  prevailing  style  of  dress  in  Peru 
was  Spanish,  blended,  in  the  interior,  and  among  the  lower 

*  The  charter  of  Independence  says  that  "  no  man  is  born  a  slave  in  Peru  •," 
but  the  National  Congress  have,  practically,  legislated  to  the  contrary.  There 
are  between  four  and  five  thousand  negro  slaves  in  Lima  alone. 

■f  Good  night ! 


1839.]  STYLE    OF    DRESS.  131 

classes  throughout  the  country,  with  an  occasional  imitation 
of  Indian  costume;  but  latterly,  according  to  Lieutenant 
Revere,  "  English  tailors  have  transmogrified  the  men,  and 
French  milliners  have  played  the  deuce  with  the  women."* 
The  cholo  still  adheres  to  his  poncho,  and  his  embroidered 
jerkin,  or  zamdrra;  the  Indian  woman  does  not  lay  aside 
her  gay-colored  bayeta  ;  the  mestizo  continues  to  display  his 
vest  and  breeches  of  shining  velvet,  decked  with  bright  fili- 
gree buttons ;  but  the  prevailing  fashions,  among  the  upper 
classes,  are  French  and  English,  and  these  are  fast  extend- 
ing to  every  rank  and  condition. 

At  Lima  and  Truxillo,  a  singular  dress,  peculiar  to  those 
two  cities,  is  worn  by  the  ladies,  at  church,  in  religious  pro- 
cessions, in  their  promenades,  and  sometimes  during  a  morn- 
ing call ;  but  it  is  never  seen  in  a  ball  room  or  theatre.  This 
dress  consists  of  the  Sdya  y  Mdnto, — literally,  a  petticoat 
and  veil.  There  are  two  kinds  of  sdyas — the  sdya  ajustdda, 
and  the  sdya  culepa,  or  sdya  desplegdda.  The  former  is  a 
skirt,  or  petticoat,  of  thick  silk,  either  of  a  brown  or  some 
other  dark  color,  which  is  plaited  at  the  top  and  bottom,  in 
small  fluted  folds,  drawn  close  together  at  the  waist,  but 
widening  as  they  descend.  It  fits  tightly  to  the  form,  and 
nothing  could  be  better  devised  to  display  the  symmetry  of 
the  wearer's  limbs,  unless  it  were  complete  male  attire.  It, 
of  course,  prevents  any  rapid  movement  in  walking,  though 
it  does  not  reach  quite  as  low  as  the  ankle, — the  inventor, 
probably,  not  caring  entirely  to  hide  the  tasteful  ckaussure. 
This  garment,  however,  is  rapidly  going  out  of  date, — few 
really  modest  females  making  use  of  it, — and  the  sdya  desple- 
gdda  is  taking  its  place.  The  latter  is  plaited  close  at  the 
waist,  but  from  thence  downwards,  it  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  hooped  petticoat. 

The  mdnto  is  a  veil  of  thick  black  silk,  fastened  at  the 
back  of  the  waist,  where  it  joins  the  sdya,  by  a  narrow  band. 
It  is  thence  brought  over  the  shoulders  and  head,  and  drawn 
over  the  face,  so  as  to  leave  a  small  triangular  space,  in 

*  Tour  of  Duty  in  California,  p.  11. 


132  POPULAR    AMUSEMENTS.  [1839 

which  glistens  the  eye  of  the  wearer,  like  a  diamond  set  in 
jets.  Sometimes  a  rich  shawl  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders, 
beneath  the  mdnto.  The  folds  of  the  veil  are  confined  by  a 
small  hand,  always  neatly  gloved ;  in  the  other  hand  is  car- 
ried a  richly  embroidered  handkerchief,  or  a  pretty  nosegay. 

Those  who  wear  this  strange  costume  are  called  tapddas. 
Its  original  design,  it  is  said,  was  to  secure  privacy  and  pre- 
vent intrusion ;  but,  of  late,  it  has  been  sadly  perverted,  and 
is  now  a  convenient  shield  and  cover  for  the  demirep  and 
intrigant.  Many  are  the  tales  related,  in  the  gay  capital  of 
Peru,  of  jealous  lovers  and  husbands  outwitted, — and  of  frail 
friars,  and  frailer  nuns,  forgetting  the  solemn  vows  which 
they  had  taken,  and  soiling  forever  the  vestal  purity  and  per- 
fectness  of  their  high  calling. 

All  classes  in  Peru  are  passionately  fond  of  amusements 
of  every  kind, — of  dancing,  theatrical  performances,  and  musi- 
cal entertainments.  Religious  processions  may  likewise  be 
classed  in  the  same  category,  as  many  seem  to  regard  them 
in  that  light.  The  festivals  of  Corpus  Christi,  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  San  Francisco,  are  celebrated,  in  the  cities,  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony ;  and  from  the  highest  to  the  low- 
est, the  brilliant  pageant  is  enjoyed  with  unusual  zest.  On 
St.  John's  day,  (24th  of  June,)  a  grand  festival  is  held  by  the 
lower  classes  in  Lima — and  not,  as  Captain  Wilkes,  perhaps 
hastily,  conjectured,  by  the  population  generally* — in  the 
valley,  or  plain,  of  Amancaes,  which  is  about  half  a  mile 
northwest  of  the  city,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  beautiful 
yellow  lily,  whose  blossoms  are  liberally  sprinkled  over  its 
surface  at  the  time  of  the  fete.  It  is  merely  a  drunken  bout, 
however;  drinking,  gaming,  gormandism,  and  dancing  the 
obscene  samacueca,  constituting  the  principal  attractions  of 
this  Peruvian  Floralia. 

As  has  heretofore  been  stated,  the  white  Creole  in  Peru,  is 
not  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks.  When 
he  takes  wine,  it  is  usually  some  sweet  and  light  kind,  &:id 
is  partaken  of  sparingly.     But  the  mixed  races,  and  the  peo- 

*  Narrative  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  Vol.  I,  p.  244. 


1839.]  MODE    OP   TRAVELLING.  133 

pie  generally  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  are  not  so  abstem- 
ious as  those  who  reside  in  the  cities  and  along  the  coast. 
The  mestizo  loves  his  aguardiente,  and  the  cholo  his  chica. 
Smoking  is  an  almost  universal  practice  among  all  classes 
and  sexes.  Among  the  other  stimulants  made  use  of,  is 
coca.  This  is  a  shrub  extensively  cultivated  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  Peru,  the  leaves  of  which,  when  dried, 
are  mixed  with  burnt  lime.  It  forms  a  powerful  stimulating 
narcotic,  which  is  used  as  a  masticatory.  Like  opium,  it 
brings  on  an  apathy  to  surrounding  objects,  but  its  effects  are 
more  pernicious,  and  a  confirmed  coca-chewer,  or  coquero,  is 
with  difficulty  reclaimed.* 

The  private  habitations  of  the  Peruvians,  in  the  interior, 
resemble  those  in  Chili.  Those  of  the  better  class  are  built 
of  adobes,  one  story  high,  with  thatched  roofs ;  but  the  In- 
dians, and  the  poorer  inhabitants,  live  in  miserable  hovels 
constructed  of  cane  and  mud,  which  are  dirty  and  filthy  in 
the  extreme.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  among 
the  sandy  lomas,  or  hills,  which  are  so  common  in  that  sec- 
tion, houses  may  often  be  seen  that  are  erected  on  posts,  from 
eight  to  ten  feet  high,  in  order  to  render  them  cool  and  airy, 
and  to  protect  the  occupants  from  the  sand-flies.  The  ma- 
terial used  in  their  construction  is  a  species  of  reed,  and  the 
roofs  are  thatched  with  leaves. 

Mules  and  llamas  are  the  principal  carriers  of  burdens  in 
Peru,- and  travelling  is  performed,  either  on  horseback,  or, 
where  the  roads  will  admit,  in  antique  coaches  of  Spanish 
patterns,  or  in  the  calesa,  a  small  chaise.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  navigation,  there  have  been  steamers  to 
accommodate  those  persons  wishing  to  go  from  one  port  on 
the  coast  to  another.  In  Lima,  omnibuses  have  become  quite 
common,  and  they  have  almost  superseded  the  other  modes 
of  riding  in  the  city,  and  between  it  and  Callao. 

(6.)  Two  great  mountain  chains,  running  parallel  with 
eaoh  other  and  the  ooast,  intersect  Peru,  and  divide  it  into 

*  The  annual  value  of  the  coca  prepared  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  is  estimated  at 
two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars. 


134  TOPOGRAPHY.  [1839 

three  regions  These  two  ranges  are  called  the  Cordillera 
and  the  Andes.  Strictly  speaking,  the  Cordillera  is  the  chain 
nearest  the  coast,  and  the  Andes  the  eastern  chain ;  but  the 
terms  are  now  used  indiscriminately.  The  strip  between  the 
coast  and  the  first  chain,  is  from  sixty  to  seventy  miles  wide  ; 
some  portions  of  it  are  covered  with  dry,  barren  sand  ;  others 
are  less  arid ;  and,  here  and  there,  are  small  oases,  like  that 
in  which  Lima  is  built,  which  are  exceedingly  fertile.  The 
space  inclosed  between  the  two  mountain  ridges,  is  called 
the  Sierra.  This  tract  is  partly  occupied  by  the  cross  ranges 
intersecting  the  two  principal  chains,  and  by  huge  naked 
rocks  ;  partly  by  wide-spread  table  lands,  known  as  the  Puna, 
or  Despoblddo,  which  are  mostly  uninhabited,  and  scantily 
covered  with  sickly  looking  yellow  grass,  stunted  quinuii 
trees,  and  large  patches  of  the  Ratanhia  shrub ;  and  partly 
by  expansive  valleys,  which  make  a  suitable  return  for  the 
labor  of  the  husbandman.*  But  little  is  known  of  the  third 
region,  along  the  base  of  the  eastern  mountain  chain,  although 
the  old  inhabitants  chiefly  dwelt  there,  and  obtained  from  the 
mines  the  metal  which  they  manufactured  into  the  curious 
forms  and  shapes  that  aroused  the  cupidity  of  Pizarro  and  his 
followers. 

The  Peruvian  coast  is  rugged  and  lofty,  throughout  its 
whole  extent,  except  in  the  northern  provinces,  where  some 
miles  of  a  loose  sandy  desert  occasionally  intervene  between 
the  high  lands  and  the  Pacific.  There  are  but  few  secure  har- 
bors in  the  whole  sixteen  hundred  miles  of  sea  coast.  Those 
of  Callao,  Payta,  Sechura,  Salina,  Pisco,  Islay,  and  Tquiqua, 
are  esteemed  the  best.  At  Truxillo  and  Lambaqeque,  there 
are  mere  open  roadsteads,  which,  in  rough  weather,  are  ex- 
tremely insecure.  On  account  of  the  great  depth  of  the  water, 
vessels  are  generally  obliged  to  anchor  within  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  of  the  shore.  Where  there  are  no  moles,  or  piers,  the 
operation  of  landing,  usually  effected  by  means  of  the  balsa, 
is  very  dangerous,  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  surf  occa- 

*  It  is  very  evident  from  the  appearance  of  these  valleys,  that  they  once  sus- 
tained a  much  larger  population  than  they  now  do. 


1839.J  CLIMATE.  135 

sioned  by  the  mighty  swell  almost  constantly  rolling  in  upon 
the  shore. 

Peru  oannot  boast  of  any  great  rivers.  The  Rimae  merely 
carries  off  the  melted  snow  of  the  mountains ;  it  has  not  suf- 
ficient force  to  break  through  the  sand-bar  at  its  mouth,  and 
its  waters  percolate  through  it  in  the  most  lazy  manner  im- 
aginable. But  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  the 
Tunguragua,  the  Huallaga,  and  the  Ucayale,  have  their 
origin  here.  The  Tunguragua  has  its  source  in  the  small 
lake,  Llauricocha,  lying  north  of  Cerro  di  Pasco.  There  is 
another  lake,  the  Titicaca,  the  largest  and  most  elevated  in 
South  America,  situated  partly  in  Peru  and  partly  in  Bo- 
livia, which  abounds  in  fish,  but  its  navigation  is  not  free 
from  danger,  as  it  is  liable  to  sudden  squalls  and  storms ; 
and  there  are  several  smaller  lakes  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  sources  of  the  Amazon  are  considerable  streams, 
and  if  the  occasional  obstructions  were  removed,  they  could 
be  navigated  for  some  distance,  by  steam-vessels  of  light 
draught. 

In  most  of  the  provinces  of  Peru,  the  climate  is  said  to  be 
proverbially  fine,  but  the  bills  of  mortality  indicate  that  this 
must  be  taken  with  some  reservations  and  exceptions,  though, 
upon  the  whole,  it  may  be  pronounced  salubrious.  There 
are  two  seasons  during  the  year — the  wet  and  the  dry. 
From  April  till  October,  the  coast  lands  are  covered  during 
the  morning,  and  often  throughout  the  day,  by  a  dense  fog  or 
mist,  which  serves  to  moisten  the  ground,  instead  of  the  rain 
which  nature  has  denied  to  it.  Towards  the  north  the  fogs 
grow  lighter,  and  in  the  extreme  northern  province  rain  some- 
times falls ;  and  when  this  blessing  is  vouchsafed,  the  arendles, 
or  arid  sands,  are  soon  covered  with  an  exuberant  vegetation. 
In  October  and  November,  the  mists  begin  to  rise,  and,  by  a 
gradual  transition,  the  dry  season,  which  commences  in  De- 
cember and  terminates  in  March,  is  at  length  introduced. 
During  the  summer  on  the  coast,  heavy  rains,  often  accom- 
panied with  thunder,  fall  among  the  montanas,  or  mountains, 
in  the  interior.     The  rivers  and  smaller  streams  now  rush 


136  EARTHQUAKES.  [1839 

down  to  the  ocean  swollen  far  beyond  their  customary  size, 
and  thus  furnish  abundant  means  for  irrigation. 

Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  the  equator,  the  temper- 
ature in  the  coast  region  is  not  so  high  as  would  naturally  be 
supposed.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  southwest,  and 
are  very  cooling.  West  winds  are  not  common,  but  they 
sometimes  blow  with  terrific  violence,  and  when  they  break 
against  the  mountains,  often  form  dangerous  whirlwinds. 
The  northern  winds,  or,  rather,  currents  of  air, — for  they 
can  hardly  be  called  winds, — are  very  sultry  and  oppressive. 
At  night,  the  land  breezes  take  the  place  of  the  sea  breezes 
that  blow  during  the  day.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
year  in  Lima  is  about  70°,  but  there  are  villages  in  its  im- 
mediate vicinity,  subject  to  the  same  atmospherical  influences, 
where  it  is  still  higher.  The  great  humidity  of  the  atmos- 
phere upon  the  coast  gives  rise  to  severe  fevers,  and  the 
change  from  the  damp  to  the  dry  season  frequently  produces 
violent  attacks  of  dysentery.  Colics,  bilious  and  inflamma- 
tory diseases,  and  small-pox,  are  also  very  common. 

The  most  agreeable  climate  in  Peru  is  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  extensive  elevated  valleys,  between  the  Cordillera  and 
Andes,  and  the  paramos,  or  ranges  connecting  the  two  great 
ridges.  The  valley  of  Cuzco  has  long  been  admired  for  its 
fine  climate,  though  it  is  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Earthquakes  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
country,  and  have  repeatedly  been  attended  with  the  most 
disastrous  consequences.  The  entire  town  of  Callao,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Lima,  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in 
1746.  Shocks  are  felt — more  or  less  powerful — every  year. 
Since  1746,  there  have  been  two  destructive  earthquakes,  in 
1806  and  1828,  and  another  is  confidently  predicted  as  being 
soon  to  take  place,  by  those  persons  in  Lima  and  Callao  who 
are  fond  of  relating  marvels,  and  divining  signs  and  wonders. 

Were  Peru  deprived  of  all  beside,  she  would  still  have 
much  to  boast  of,  in  the  vast  mineral  wealth  concealed  be- 
neath the  frowning  buttresses  of  the  Andes.  For  centuries 
she  has  poured  forth  an  almost  unbroken  current  of  gold  and 


1839.]  mining.  137 

silver,  but  the  supply  is  not  yet  exhausted.  Stories  border- 
ing upon  the  marvellous  have  long  been  told  in  regard  to 
these  precious  deposits,  but  though  they  have  not,  and  will 
not  be  realized,  they  are  not  wholly  fictitious."* 

Silver  has  always  been  the  principal  mineral  obtained  in 
Peru.  The  most  productive  mines  of  this  metal  now  wrought, 
are  at  Cerro  di  Pasco.  These  were  accidentally  discovered 
in  1630,  by  an  Indian  shepherd,  who  was  tending  his  flocks 
on  a  small  pampa  southeast  of  the  lake  of  Llauricocha.  Hav- 
ing wandered  one  day  further  from  his  hut  than  usual,  he 
found  himself,  towards  evening,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cerro 
de  Santiestevan.  After  building  a  fire  to  protect  him  against 
the  cold,  he  lay  down  to  sleep.  On  awaking  the  following 
morning,  he  discovered  that  the  stone  underneath  his  fire  had 
melted  and  turned  to  silver.  The  discovery  was  immediately 
made  known  to  his  master,  who  forthwith  commenced  active 
preparations  for  working  the  mines.  Since  that  time  they 
have  been  constantly  worked  by  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
persons.  One  class  of  speculators  has  been  eagerly  followed 
by  another  class ;  but  few  of  them,  however,  owing  to  the 
want  of  thrift  and  proper  management,  have  amassed  any 
very  considerable  wealth. 

All  the  mine  laborers  are  Indians.  They  consist  of  two 
classes, — one  working  in  the  mines  the  year  round,  and  re- 
ceiving regular  wages  from  the  proprietors  of  ftie  mines, — 
and  the  other  making  only  temporary  visits  to  Cerro  di  Pasco, 
when  an  unusual  supply  of  the  metal  is  procured.  In  the 
mines,  also,  the  laborers  are  divided  into  two  classes ;  the 
barreteros,  who  break  the  ore, — and  the  apires,  who  bring 
up  the  ore  from  the  shaft.  From  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds 
of  metal  is  the  usual  load  of  the  apire  ;  this  he  carries  up 
the  shaft  in  an  untanned  hide,  called  a  carpacho.  When  the 


*  At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the  annual  value  of  the  gold 
and  silver  produced  in  Peru,  was  upwards  of  six  millions  of  dollars.  It  is  now 
between  three  and  four  millions.  But  about  one  thirtieth  part  of  this  amount  ia 
gold.  Great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  are  smuggled  out  of  the  country,— r 
the  latter  in  the  shape  of  pldta  pina,  or  native  silver. 


' 


138  MINERAL    WEALTH.  [1839. 

mines  yield  abundantly,  the  laborers  receive  a  share  of  the 
ore  instead  of  wages ;  but  at  other  times,  the  barretero  is 
paid  six  reals  per  day,  and  the  apire  four. 

Mining  at  Cerro  di  Pasco,  as  well  as  at  the  other  mines  in 
Peru,  is  not  managed  with  as  little  difficulty  as  in  other 
countries,  where  improvements  in  science  and  the  arts  are  so 
quickly  employed  to  diminish  labor  and  expense.  One  ad- 
vantage is  possessed  at  the  former  place,  by  which  a  great 
saving  is  made :  the  mines  are  near  a  large  coal  bed  which 
has  recently  been  opened. 

Besides  the  mines  at  Cerro  di  Pasco,  there  are  other  rich 
mining  districts  in  the  provinces  of  Pataz,  Huamanchuco, 
Caxamarca,  and  Hualgayoc.  The  mines  of  Cerro  de  San 
Fernando,  in  Hualgayoc,  were  discovered  in  1771,  and  there 
are  now  more  than  fourteen  hundred  bocaminas ;  the  veins 
of  metal  intersect  each  other  in  every  direction ;  they  are 
easily  worked,  and  are  very  productive.  The  mines  of  Huan- 
tajaya,  on  the  coast  near  Iquiqua,  were  at  one  time  consid- 
ered quite  valuable,  as  they  yielded,  annually,  about  fifty-two 
thousand  pounds  of  silver.  The  metal  obtained  was  nearly 
pure,  but  it  was  soon  exhausted.*  In  southern  Peru,  there 
are  some  rich  mines,  among  which  are  those  of  San  Antonio 
de  Esquilache,  Tamayos,  Picotani,  Cancharani,  Chupicos, 
and  Salcedo. 

Gold  is  obtained  in  Tarma,  from  the  mines  of  Pataz  and 
Huilies,  and  in  the  washings  on  the  banks  of  the  upper  Ama- 
zon. At  Huancavelica  there  is  one  of  the  richest  quicksilver 
mines  in  the  world.  Between  1570  and  1800,  they  yielded 
537,000  quintals  of  the  metal,  and  the  annual  product  is  now 
estimated  at  18,000  quintals.  Most  of  it  is  used  for  the  pur- 
poses of  amalgamation,  at  the  silver  mines. 

Besides  the  precious  metals,  Peru  produces  iron,  copper, 
tin,  coal,  and  saltpetre. 

(7.)  Agriculture  has  never  been  in  a  prosperous  state  in 
Peru,  and  it  is  now  languishing  more  than  ever.     None  of 

*  Two  masses  of  native  silver  were  found  at  Huantajaya, — one  weighing  225 
pounds,  and  the  other  890. 


1839.]  AGRICULTURE.  139 

the  inhabitants  appear  fond  of  moiling  in  the  earth,  and,  in 
most  cases,  where  the  maize  fields  or  gardens,  exhibit  more 
than  ordinary  luxuriance  of  vegetation,  it  must  be  attributed 
to  the  kindness  of  Nature,  rather  than  to  the  industry  of  man. 
The  implements  of  husbandry  are  rude  enough.  The  plough 
is  slightly  made,  has  but  one  handle,  and  is  constructed  of 
wood,  without  a  mould-board.  The  ploughshare  is  a  thick 
iron  blade,  or  piece  of  hard  iron- wood,  tied,  when  in  use,  to 
the  point  of  the  plough,  by  a  strip  of  leather.  There  are  no 
harrows ;  but  large,  clumsy  rakes,  are  used  in  place  of  them  ; 
and,  sometimes,  a  green  bough  with  heavy  stones  laid  upon 
it,  is  dragged  over  the  sown  ground,  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  Chili.  Cane  plantations  are  ploughed  and  cross-ploughed 
eight  or  ten  times,  and  the  earth  is  then  broken  down  with 
the  heel  of  a  short  handled  hoe.  The  Indians  use,  for  the 
same  purpose,  a  flat  round  stone,  with  a  long  handle  inserted 
in  a  hole  perforated  through  the  centre. 

Instead  of  the  scythe,  the  sickle  is  used  for  cutting  grass 
and  grain ;  and  among  the  large  planters,  two  or  three  per- 
sons are  kept  constantly  employed  in  cutting  lucern,  or  alfalfa, 
for  the  cattle  and  working  oxen  which  are  confined  at  night 
in  pens,  or  corrals.  Potato  grounds  are  turned  up  with  long 
narrow  spades.  The  same  instrument  is  used  for  preparing 
the  soil  on  the  hillsides,  for  the  reception  of  maize.  The  seed 
is  planted  in  holes  made  by  a  sharp-pointed  stick. 

The  fields  and  gardens  in  Peru  are  principally  inclosed 
within  tapias,  or  mud  fences,  and  hedges  of  maguey  and  the 
Indian  fig.  Considerable  attention  is  paid  to  irrigation,  with- 
out which  a  great  portion  of  the  land  now  yielding  abun- 
dantly, would  be  wholly  unproductive.  Manure,  however, 
is  not  deemed  of  much  consequence.  Quantities  of  guano 
are  brought  every  year  from  the  adjacent  islands  in  the  Paci- 
fic, but  this  is  applied  rather  to  horticultural,  than  to  general 
agricultural  purposes. 

Cotton,  sugar  cane,  maize,  and  camotes,  or  sweet  potatoes, 
are  the  principal  products  along  the  coast.  The  sweet  pota- 
toes are  of  two  kinds, — the  yellow  and  the  violet ;  they  do 


140  SUGAR    AND    MAIZE.  [1839 

not  grow  beyond  the  height  of  3500  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Cotton  and  maize  are  grown  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  country.  The  former  ranks  next  to  the  Sea  Island  and 
Egyptian, in  the  English  market,  and,  except  in  the  province 
of  Piura,  is  all  short-stapled.  Maize  has  formed,  from  time 
immemorial,  the  chief  farinaceous  food  of  the  Peruvians. 
There  are  three  sorts  of  this  grain :  the  mdis  morocho  has 
small  bright  yellow  or  reddish  brown  kernels ;  the  mdis  ama~ 
rillo  is  large,  shaped  like  a  heart,  solid  and  opaque ;  and  the 
third  species,  the  mdis  amarillo  de  changay,  resembles  the 
second  variety,  but  is  a  square-shaped  grain,  semi-transparent, 
and  having  an  elongated  head.  The  maize  stalks  are  from 
eight  to  nine  feet  high  and  bear  very  large  ears. 

The  sugar  plantations  lie  on  the  sea-coast  or  along  the 
banks  of  rivers,  below  the  altitude  of  4500  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  on  the  western  declivity  of  the  Andes,  and  extending  as 
high  as  6000  feet  on  the  eastern  declivity.  In  former  times, 
the  creole,  or  West  India  cane,  was  the  species  most  culti- 
vated ;  but,  latterly,  the  Otaheitan  cane  has  been  introduced, 
and  the  product  is  both  more  abundant  in  quantity,  and  much 
better  in  quality.  The  sugar  mills  are  very  rude  structures. 
In  the  valley  of  Huanuco,  which  contains  the  largest  and 
finest  plantations,  the  cane  is  passed  through  wooden  presses 
with  brass  rollers.  These  clumsy  machines  are  called  trapi- 
ches  or  igenios ;  they  are  mostly  worked  by  oxen  or  mules ; 
though,  upon  the  largest  plantations,  water  power  is  some- 
times employed,  and  steam-engines  have  recently,  in  a  few 
instances,  been  put  up.  A  portion  of  the  expressed  cane  juice 
is  distilled  into  rum,  or  used  for  making  a  liquor  called  gud- 
rapo ;  the  remainder  is  boiled  down  into  sirup,  or  simmered 
till  it  forms  cakes  (chancdcas)  of  brown  sugar.  From  the 
latter,  loaves  of  white  sugar  are  made,  by  purification,  which 
usually  weigh  about  two  arrobas*  The  Peruvian  sugar 
exceeds  the  Havana  in  sweetness,  but  its  color  is  not  so  pure, 
nor  is  its  grain  as  fine. 

*  The  arroba  in  Spanish  America,  as  in  old  Spain,  contains  twenty-five  pounds 
avoirdupois. 


1839.]  YUCCA    AND    OTHER    VEGETABLES.  141 

Maize  is  likewise  produced  abundantly  in  the  fertile  moun- 
tain valleys,  on  the  warm  slopes  of  the  Andes,  and  in  the 
elevated  Sierra.  Wheat  and  other  European  cerealia  are 
little  cultivated,  though  they  succeed  admirably  in  the  high 
lying  sections  of  the  country.  Potatoes  do  not  thrive  very 
well  near  the  coast,  where  both  the  climate  and  soil  are  un- 
favorable to  their  growth  ;  but  on  the  high  ridges  and  in  the 
elevated  valleys,  from  seven  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  they  constitute  a  profitable  and  productive 
crop. 

A  most  agreeable  and  nutritive  tuberous  vegetable,  called 
the  aracdcha,  grows  in  abundance  on  the  coast.  It  resem- 
bles celery  in  flavor,  and  is  either  boiled  or  made  into  a  soup. 
In  favorable  districts,  two  crops  are  obtained  within  the  year. 
The  yucca,  or  jatropha  manihot,  is  another  fine  vegetable 
found  almost  everywhere  below  the  elevation  of  3000  feet. 
The  stalks  of  this  plant  grow  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet, 
and  are  about  the  size  of  a  finger.  The  roots,  which  are  the 
edible  parts,  are  from  one  to  two  feet  long,  and  shaped  like 
a  turnip ;  the  external  skin  is  tough,  but  internally  they  are 
pure  white.  In  taste  they  resemble  chestnuts.  They  are 
boiled  in  water  and  then  laid  in  hot  ashes,  when  they  become 
quite  mealy.  Flour  is  prepared  from  them  by  the  Indians, 
out  of  which  the  finest  bread  and  biscuits  are  made.  The 
yucca  is  propagated  by  cuttings  from  the  stalk,  which  are 
placed  obliquely  in  the  earth.  The  roots  are  fit  for  use  in 
five  or  six  months. 

Nearly  all  the  different  kinds  of  pulse  are  raised  on  the 
coast,  but  beans  flourish  best  in  the  hilly  country.  Cabbages 
and  salads  of  every  variety,  tomatoes,  and  peppers,  are  pro- 
duced in  all  parts  of  Peru  except  in  the  very  coldest  sec- 
tions. Rice  is  also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent.  Of  culi- 
nary vegetables  there  is  a  generous  supply,  as  well  in  kind 
as  in  quality,  throughout  the  year.  The  vine  is  cultivated 
in  some  quarters  to  great  advantage ;  the  grapes  are  exceed- 
ingly well-flavored,  but  the  wine  made  from  them  is  rather 
insipid.     In  the  southern  coastwise  provinces,  the  olive  tree 


142  PLANTS    OP   THE    SIERRA.  [1839. 

is  found.  Its  fruit  resembles  that  of  the  Spanish  olive,  though 
the  oil  is  by  no  means  as  good,  probably  on  account  of  the  defec- 
tive manner  of  expressing  it.  The  olives  are  permitted  to 
ripen  thoroughly  on  the  tree ;  they  are  then  gathered,  sub- 
jected to  a  slight  pressure,  dried,  and  packed  in  small  earthen 
jars.  They  are  served  at  table  with  pieces  of  tomato  and  aji 
(Spanish  pepper)  laid  upon  them.  Sometimes  they  are  pre- 
served in  salt  water,  when  they  remain  plump  and  green, 
instead  of  becoming  shrivelled  and  black,  as  in  the  other  pro- 
cess. The  castor-oil  plant  grows  wild  in  Peru,  and  is  culti- 
vated also  on  many  plantations;  the  oil,  however,  is  not 
purified,  but  is  used  for  the  street  lamps  in  Lima,  and  for 
greasing  machinery.  Another  oil  plant  is  the  pinoncillo  tree, 
which  produces  a  fruit  shaped  like  a  bean,  and,  when  roasted, 
having  an  agreeable  flavor. 

One  of  the  most  nutritious,  and  one  of  the  most  important 
articles  of  food,  in  the  Sierra,  is  the  quinua,  or  quinoa.  Its 
leaves,  when  green,  are  eaten  like  spinach  ;  but  the  most 
valuable  parts  of  the  plant  are  the  seeds.  These  are  boiled 
in  milk  or  in  broth,  and  are  sometimes  cooked  with  cheese 
and  Spanish  pepper.  They  are  highly  prized  by  the  Peru- 
vians, and  most  travellers  commend  their  agreeable  flavor. 
The  dried  stems  of  the  quinua  are  also  made  use  of  as  fuel. 
Besides  the  potato,  there  are  three  other  tuberous  plants  cul- 
tivated with  success  in  the  Sierra.  These  are  the  ulluco,  the 
oca,  and  the  mashua.  The  ulluco  is  much  smaller  than  the 
potato,  and  varies  in  its  form,  being  either  round  or  oblong, 
straight  or  curved.  The  skin  is  thin  and  of  a  reddish  yellow 
color  ;  the  inside  is  green.  When  boiled,  its  flavor  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  potato,  yet  it  is  much  more  savory 
when  cooked  as  a  piquante.  In  addition  to  the  root,  that 
part  of  the  plant  above  the  ground  furnishes  an  agreeable 
and  wholesome  vegetable,  something  like  the  bean ;  three 
crops  of  this  green  portion  of  the  ulluco  may  be  gathered  in 
the  same  season.* 

•  The  ulluco  has  been  cultivated  with  success  in  the  gardens  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg palace,  and  is  regarded  as  a  very  good  substitute  for  the  potato. 


1839.]  ?ruits.  143 

The  oca  is  an  oval-shaped  root ;  the  outer  skin  is  a  most 
delicate  red,  and  inside  it  is  white.  It  is  watery  when  cooked, 
but  has  a  sweetish  taste.  The  rnashua  resembles  the  oca  in 
this  respect,  though  it  is  somewhat  more  insipid ;  it  is  of  a 
flat  pyramidal  shape,  however,  and  its  lower  end  terminates 
in  a  fibrous  point. 

Lucern,  or  alfalfa,  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives,  is  the 
great  article  used  for  fodder.  From  the  "  sea-beat  shore"  of 
the  Pacific,  across  the  sunny  slopes  of  the  tierra  caliente,  up 
the  luxuriant  valleys  and  gloomy  quebradas  of  the  interior, 
to  the  rocky  heights  of  the  Sierra,  eleven  thousand  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  it  is  scattered  lavishly  around.  It  is 
cut  from  three  to  five  times  during  the  year,  and,  as  may 
readily  be  presumed,  furnishes  an  almost  inexhaustible  sup- 
ply of  provender.  The  hot  weather  of  the  coast,  in  Febru- 
ary and  March,  and  the  keen  frosts  of  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, occasionally  dry  it  up,  and  the  maisillo  is  then  used 
in  its  stead. 

The  most  fastidious  epicure  would  be  delighted  with  the 
fruits  which  ripen  in  the  fine  climate,  and  on  the  rich  soil,  of 
Peru.  Besides  the  vine  and  olive,  the  succulent  pomegran- 
ate, famed  for  its  "  pleasant  sweetness,"  the  luscious  plantain, 
the  grateful  and  nutritious  banana,  and  the  juicy  guava,* 
are  found  here  in  profusion.  Apples  and  pears  grow  but  in- 
differently ;  and  cherries,  plums,  and  chestnuts,  are  likewise 
as  inferior  as  they  are  rare.  The  absence  of  these  produc- 
tions of  temperate  climes  is  more  than  made  up,  however,  by 
the  extensive  groves  of  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  nectarines, 
and  granadillas,  whioh  occupy  the  warm  mountain  valleys 
even  as  high  as  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Peaches 
and  apricots,  too,  of  the  finest  and  most  agreeable  flavor,  are 
abundant.  In  the  months  of  April  and  May,  excursions  to 
the  durazndles,  or  apricot-gardens,  are  all  the  rage.     Melons 

*  The  fruit  of  the  guava  is  yellow  and  smooth,  and  &  little  larger  than  a  hen's 
egg.  The  pulp  is  flesh  colored,  and  has  a  very  agreeable  aromatic  taste.  It  is 
used  at  the  dessert  and  made  into  a  preserve.  The  jelly  prepared  from  it  is  one 
of  the  finest  conserves. 


144  THE    CHIRIMOYA.  [1839. 

of  every  variety  are  raised  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  woody 
districts. 

Of  figs  there  are  two  kinds, — the  higos  and  the  brevets. 
The  pulp  of  the  former  is  red,  and  that  of  the  latter  white. 
Fig-trees  grow  wild  in  every  section  of  the  country.  No  one 
thinks  of  drying  the  fruit,  as  the  almost  perpetual  summer 
furnishes  a  constant  succession  of  figs.  The  mulberry  tree 
also  flourishes  without  cultivation,  but  its  fruit  is  so  little 
esteemed  in  comparison  with  others  more  tempting  to  the 
appetite,  that  the  birds  are  left  to  enjoy  it  with  impunity- 
Quinces  are  rare  on  the  coast,  but  are  plentiful  in  the  que- 
brddas.  Among  the  other  fruits  are  the  patta,  resembling 
the  pear  in  shape,  which  dissolves  like  butter  on  the  tongue, 
and  has  a  not  unpleasant  bitter  taste  ;  the  tuna,  the  product 
of  different  varieties  of  cactus,  which  is  almost  the  only  indi- 
genous fruit  in  the  Sierra ;  the  pacay,  a  white,  soft  and  flaky 
substance,  contained  in  the  seed  pods  of  the  prosopis  dulcis, 
which  is  extremely  sweet ;  the  lucuma,  a  dry,  fibrous,  yel- 
low-colored fruit,  inclosed  with  its  kernel  in  a  gray-brown 
husk ;  the  pepino,  or  Peruvian  cucumber,  a  fruit  produced 
by  a  small  plant  grown  in  the  fields,  the  pulp  of  which  is 
solid,  juicy,  and  highly-flavored;  and  the  mani,  or  earth 
almond,  an  oily  kernel  contained  in  a  shrivelled  huisk,  which 
is  roasted  and  crushed,  and  then  eaten  with  sugar. 

Pine-apples  are  not  much  cultivated  on  the  coast.  They 
were  formerly  brought  to  Lima,  in  considerable  abundance, 
from  the  Montana  de  Vitoc;  but  since  the  era  of  steam  navi- 
gation on  the  Pacific  coast,  they  have  been  brought,  in  much 
less  time,  from  Guayaquil,  and,  consequently,  they  are  gen- 
erally allowed  to  ripen  before  being  cut.  Cocoa  palms  are 
tolerably  abundant  in  the  northern  provinces,  ami  the  date 
palm  grows  excellently  well  about  Yea  at  the  south. 

But  the  just  pride  and  boast  of  the  Peruvian,  is  the  chiri- 
moya ;  beyond  question  excelling  all  other  tropical  fruits  in 
the  delicacy  of  its  flavor.  The  tree  which  produces  this  rich 
fruit  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  has  a  broad  flat 
top.     Its  foliage  is  of  a  pale  green  color.     In  Lima  and  its 


1839.J  PERUVIAN    BARK.  145 

vicinity,  the  fruit  is  small,  being  scarcely  larger  than  an 
orange ;  but  in  Huanuco  and  other  districts,  where  it  is  in- 
digenous, it  attains  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and  often 
weighs  sixteen  pounds  and  upwards.  It  is  of  a  roundish 
pyramidal  or  heart-shaped  form,  and  unites  with  the  stem  at 
its  broadest  base.  Externally  it  is  green,  and  is  covered  with 
scaly  knobs,  and  black  marks  resembling  network.  When 
it  becomes  perfectly  ripe,  black  spots  appear  on  the  surface. 
The  skin  is  thick  and  tough,  but,  underneath  this,  there  is  a 
juicy,  snowy-white  fruit,  containing  a  number  of  seeds,  which 
is  prized  above  all  other  delicacies  by  those  who  have  once 
tasted  it.  Both  the  fruit  and  the  flowers  emit  a  fine  fragrant 
odor  that  fairly  intoxicates  the  senses. 

Cedar,  ebony,  mahogany,  and  walnut,  are  the  most  valua- 
ble forest  trees.  Numerous  medicinal  plants  are  obtained  in 
the  country,  and  the  bark  of  the  cinchona  lancifolia,  so  well 
known  under  the  name  of  Peruvian  bark,  forms  an  important 
article  of  export.  The  various  species  of  cinchona  grow  spon- 
taneously in  the  forests  of  Peru.  The  tree  resembles  the 
cherry  in  appearance,  and  bears  large  clusters  of  red  flowers. 
Its  medical  properties  were  discovered  by  the  natives,  and 
brought  into  use  by  the  Jesuits,  for  which  reason  it  was 
originally  called  Jesuits'  bark.  It  takes  its  botanical  name 
from  the  Countess  del  Chincon,  the  wife  of  a  Spanish  vice- 
roy, who  was  cured  by  it.  The  natives  collect  the  bark  from 
May  till  November.  The  trees  are  felled  close  to  the  roots, 
and  then  cut  up.  After  the  sticks  have  dried  three  or  four 
days,  the  bark  is  peeled  off  in  broad  strips,  which  are  imme- 
diately exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  This  causes  them  to 
roll  up  in  a  cylindrical  form, — the  folds  or  coils  being  some- 
times so  close  that  there  is  no  cavity  in  the  centre.  The 
value  of  the  bark  depends  mainly  on  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  is  dried.  The  drying  process  being  completed,  it  is  packed 
in  bales,  each  containing  four  or  five  arrobas,  and  exported 
in  chests  carefully  inclosed  in  skins.* 

*  It  is  comparatively  but  a  few  years  since  the  French  chemists,  Messrs.  Pel- 
letier  and  Caventou,made  the  discovery,  that  the  medical  properties  of  Peruvian 

....      7 


146  BALSAM    OF    PERU.  [1839. 

Balsam  of  Peru  is  an  important  product,  chiefly  valued  for 
the  benzoic  acid  it  contains,  and  also  employed  as  a  perfume. 
It  is  extracted  from  the  myroxylon  peruiferum,  sometimes 
by  incision,  and  sometimes  by  evaporating  the  decoction  of 
the  bark  and  branches  of  the  tree.  The  first  kind  is  very 
rare,  and  is  exported  in  cocoa  husks,  from  whence  it  is  called 
balsam  en  coque  ;  it  is  of  a  brown  color,  of  the  consistence  of 
thick  turpentine,  and  has  an  agreeable  smell,  but  an  acrid  and 
bitter  taste.  The  second  kind  is  called  the  black  balsam,  and 
is  quite  common.  It  is  of  a  deep  reddish  brown  color,  and 
is  much  more  acrid  and  bitter,  and  has  a  stronger  smell,  than 
the  other  sort.  The  balsam  of  Peru  always  commands  a 
high  price,  and  is,  therefore,  frequently  adulterated. 

A  species  of  red  thorn  apple,  (the  datura  sanguined)  is 
found  in  the  Sierra,  from  which  a  powerful  narcotic  drink, 
called  tonga,  is  prepared  by  the  Peruvian  Indians.  It  pro- 
duces a  heavy  stupor,  during  the  continuance  of  which  the 
natives  who  make  use  of  it  fancy  they  can  hold  communica- 
tion with  the  spirits  of  their  forefathers,  and  obtain  from  them 
a  clew  to  the  rich  treasures  said  to  be  concealed  in  their 
graves,  or  hudcas.  From  this  superstitious  belief,  the  thorn- 
apple  has  obtained  the  name  of  hudca-cachu,  or  grave-plant, 
among  the  Indians. 

In  the  Puna  there  are  large  patches  of  ground  covered  with 
the  ratanhia  shrub  {krameria  triandria.)  This  is  used  by 
the  Indians  for  fuel,  and  for  roofing  their  huts.  It  is  also  a 
favorite  remedy  among  them,  for  spitting  blood  and  dysen- 
tery. The  extract  was  formerly  prepared  in  Peru-,  and  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities  to' Europe,  but  latterly  very  little 
has  been  shipped. 

Warmed  by  a  tropical  sun,  and  blessed  with  a  genial  cli- 
mate, Peru  exhibits  a  most  magnificent  flora  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.     Blossoms  and  flowers  constantly 

bark  depended  upon  the  presence  of  the  valuable  alkaloid  known  in  pharmacy 
as  quinine.  It  is  said  that  the  use  of  90.000  ounces  of  the  sulphate  of  quinine 
produced  in  France  in  a  single  year,  obviated  the  necessity  of  swallowing  at 
least  10,000,000  ounces  of  the  bark. 


1839.]  COMMERCE.  147 

alternate  with  each  other.  The  great  and  mysterious  agents 
of  decay  and  reproduction  are  incessantly  at  work.  If,  at 
one  moment,  Nature  seems  to  sicken  and  die,  at  the  next, 
borrowing,  as  it  were,  renewed  beauty,  life  and  loveliness, 
from  death  itself,  she  springs  forth  again,  like  the  Phenix 
from  its  funeral  pyre.  The  fertile  oases  of  the  coast  country 
are  liberally  sprinkled  with  tropical  flowers,  not  more  rich  in 
color  than  agreeable  in  fragrance ;  and  even  in  the  Sierra, 
amidst  rushes,  and  mosses,  and  syngenesia,  may  be  seen  the 
purple  gentian,  the  brown  calceolaria,  the  echino  and  ananas 
cactus.  The  different  varieties  of  cacti  can  scarcely  be 
enumerated  ;  their  Protean  shapes  and  divers  hues  excite  the 
wonder  and  admiration  of  the  traveller ;  and  in  many  in- 
stances, where  the  vegetation  is  otherwise  scant  and  sickly, 
they  clothe  the  landscape  in  rare  and  beautiful  apparel- 
ling. 

(8.)  Peru  not  only  carries  on  her  own  commerce  through 
her  seaports,  but  she  is  the  great  entrepot  of  the  adjacent 
state  of  Bolivia.*  The  total  value  of  Peruvian  and  Bolivian 
produce  shipped  through  the  ports  of  Peru,  in  1837,  amounted 
to  near  seven  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  The  principal 
articles  of  export  were  bark,  bullion  and  copper  ore,  hides, 
seal  skins,  and  vicuna,  alpaca,  and  sheeps'  wool.  The  im- 
ports for  the  same  period  were  also  about  seven  and  a  half 
millions.  Two  thirds  of  the  imports,  and  rather  more  than 
that  proportion  of  the  exports,  belong  to  Peru  alone.  For 
the  past  ten  years  the  foreign  commerce  has  increased  but 
slowly,  and  in  some  years  has  sensibly  declined.  Great  Bri- 
tain enjoys  by  far  the  better  part  of  the  Peruvian  trade ;  the 
United  States,  in  1847,  exported  goods  only  to  the  amount 
of  $227,537,  and  imported  from  Peru  $396,223. 

Internal  commerce  languishes  under  the  numerous  disad- 
vantages which  have  long  obstructed  its  successful  prosecu- 
tion. In  the  days  of  the  Incas,  anterior  to  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, there  were  several  great  roads  traversing  the  country, 

*  Holiva  has  but  one  small  seaport. — that  of  Cobija,  or  La  Mar. 


148  MANUFACTURES.  [1839 

which,  aside  from  the  bridges  constructed  of  osiers,  would 
compare  favorably  with  the  vias  of  ancient  Rome,  that 

"  Time,  and  Goth,  and  Turk,  have  spared." 

In  addition  to  these  important  and  extensive  thoroughfares, — 
the  remains  of  which,  grand  and  imposing  though  in  ruins, 
are  still  visible, — various  passes  were  cut  in  the  steep  para- 
mos, or  mountain  ridges,  of  the  Andes.  But  the  deplorable 
effects  of  the  same  want  of  spirit  and  energy,  that,  elsewhere 
in  Peru,  have  suffered  her  morning  splendor  to  be  prematurely 
dimmed  and  overshadowed,  may  be  witnessed  here.  The 
roads  built  by  the  rude  and  unlettered  aborigines  have  fallen 
to  decay  under  the  auspices  of  their  European  masters ;  and 
the  passes  excavated  with  so  much  labor  and  care,  have  dis- 
appeared beneath  the  debris  washed  down  from  the  Cordil- 
leras. With  a  few  exceptions  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
large  cities,  the  roads  laid  out  by  the  Spaniards  are  mere 
bridle  tracks  for  horses  or  mules,  and  the  gulleys  and  streams 
that  cannot  be  crossed  or  forded,  are  passed  by  means  of  hang- 
ing bridges,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  a  very  unsafe  mode  of 
transportation.  Quite  recently,  laudable  efforts  have  been 
made  for  the  improvement  of  the  roads,  but  the  want  of  suit- 
able means  of  communication  constitutes  the  chief  drawback 
on  internal  commerce,  and  is  a  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
social  and  commercial  progress. 

But  little  can  be  said  in  commendation  of  the  manufactur- 
ing industry  of  a  country  whose  pedigree  dates  back  so  many 
hundred  years.  Lima  can  boast  only  of  her  mint,  some 
smelting  houses,  and  a  glass  house  lately  established.  At 
Cuzco,  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  stuffs,  and  leather  and 
parchment,  are  manufactured,  in  which  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  with  the  neighboring  provinces.  There  are  flour- 
ishing manufactures  of  woolens  and  cottons,  and  gold  and 
silver  cloths,  at  Arequipa ;  and  at  Guamanga  is  made  the 
fine  filigree  silver  work  for  which  inland  Peru  is  celebrated. 
Coarse  straw  hats,  and  mats  called  petdtes,  are  manufactured 
at  Huacho,  and  brought  into  Lima  for  sale.     In  Piura,  cord- 


1839.]  birds.  149 

age  for  packing  is  prepared  from  the  maguey,  and  at  Tarma, 
loose  cloaks,  or  ponchos,  are  made,  of  great  beauty  and  firm- 
ness. In  the  Sierra,  coarser  and  heavier  blankets  and  pon- 
chos are  manufactured  by  the  Indians.  In  the  lower  districts, 
goat  skins  are  made  into  cordovans ;  cow  hides  into  saddle- 
bags, and  travelling  cases  for  beds  and  bedding ;  and  rushes 
into  mats  and  carpets. 

(9.)  The  bay  of  Callao  abounds  with  the  finest  water-fowl. 
Humboldt's  penguin,  and  the  common  gray  penguin,  are  the 
most  remarkable.  There  is  another  small  species,  called  by 
the  Peruvians  the  paxdro  nino,  or  child-bird ;  it  is  easily 
tamed,  and  follows  its  master  like  a  dog,  waddling  along 
after  him  on  its  short  legs  and  balancing  itself  with  its  wings. 
Among  the  other  marine  birds,  are  the  banded  cormorant;  the 
iris,  which  changes  throughout  the  whole  circle  in  regular 
square  spots  of  the  most  delicate  white  and  sea-green ;  and 
the  spotted  gannet,  and  the  inca  tern. 

Of  the  land  birds,  the  turkey,  or  red-headed  vulture,  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  commonly  seen  on  the  coast,  and  in  the 
interior  the  black  gallinazo  takes  its  place.  There  are  some 
beautiful  gold- feathered  colibri  in  the  country.  A  small  bird 
about  the  size  of  the  starling,  of  a  deep  blue  color,  and  with 
a  short  curved  bill,  is  called  the  horse-protector ;  it  is  ex- 
tremely fond  of  perching  on  the  back  of  the  horse  or  ass  and 
catching  the  flies  and  insects — a  kind  of  amusement  which 
both  the  animal  and  bird  enjoy  with  equal  zest.  The 
principal  singing  birds  are  the  crowned  fly-king,  the  red- 
bellied  picho,  the  black  chivillo,  and  the  cuculi ;  the  picho 
and  chivillo  are  of  the  starling  species,  and  the  cuculi  is  a 
pigeon. 

The  most  extravagant  notions  once  prevailed  respecting 
the  size  and  strength  of  the  condor,  the  king  of  Peruvian 
birds.  A  full  grown  condor  measures  from  twelve  to  thirteen 
feet,  from  the  tip  of  one  wing  to  that  of  the  other,  and  about 
five  feet  from  the  point  of  its  beak  to  the  extremity  of  its 
tail.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  carrion.  When  hungry  it  is  some- 
times extremely  fierce,  and  will  seize  and  carry  off  lambs 


150  WILD    ANIMALS.  [1839 

and  the  young  of  the  llama  and  vicuna.  It  is  unable,  how- 
ever, to  sustain  a  greater  weight,  when  flying,  than  eight  or 
ten  pounds,  and  it  is  absurd  to  suppose,  as  has  been  frequently 
stated,  that  sheep  and  calves  could  be  carried  off  by  it.  The 
Indians  of  the  Sierra  relate  numerous  instances  of  its  attack- 
ing children,  but  their  stories  must  be  received  with  a  great 
deal  of  allowance.  The  plumage  of  the  condor  is  strong  and 
thick,  and  forms  a  very  good  protection  against  fire-arms. 
It  is  usually  caught  by  the  natives,  in  traps  or  by  the  lasso ; 
or  killed  by  the  bolas,  or  by  stones  thrown  from  slings. 

Among  the  wild  animals  are  the  puma,  or  American  lion, 
the  ounce,  a  kind  of  tiger  cat  called  the  uturuncu,  the  tapir, 
and  the  hucumari,  a  black  bear  that  inhabits  the  mountains. 
The  anas,  or  skunk,  and  a  singular  kind  of  guinea  pig,  are 
found  in  the  bushes.  The  red  deer,  the  wild  boar,  and  the 
tarush,  or  Puna  stag,  are  the  favorite  objects  of  the  chase. 
Armadillos,  rock  rabbits,  chinchillos,  and  the  venddo,  a  spe- 
cies of  roe,  are  also  caught  in  large  quantities  by  the  hunters. 
Of  the  amphibia,  the  iguana,  the  land  agama,  and  the  fresh 
water  tortoise,  are  the  most  numerous.  Alligators  infest  the 
streams,  but  noxious  reptiles  and  insects,  though  occasionally 
found,  are  not  as  frequently  met  with  as  in  many  other  coun- 
tries.    Monkeys  are  abundant  in  the  forests. 

Of  far  greater  importance  than  the  other  native  animals  of 
Peru,  are  the  llama,  or  South  American  camel,  the  alpaca, 
the  guanaco,  and  the  vicuna.  Both  the  llama  and  alpaca 
are  domesticated,  and  previously  to  the  Spanish  invasion 
they  were  the  principal  beasts  of  burden  among  the  Peru- 
vians. The  young  llama  is  left  with  its  dam  for  about  a 
year,  after  which  it  is  removed  and  placed  with  flocks.  When 
four  years  old,  the  males  and  females  are  separated ;  the  lat- 
ter being  kept  for  breeding,  and  the  former  trained  to  carry 
burdens,  principally  in  the  silver  mines  of  North  Peru.  They 
are  usually  made  to  carry  about  one  hundred  pounds  each,— 
as  they  are  only  capable  of  sustaining  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  without  injury, — and  if  overloaded  they  will  lie  down, 
and  utterly  refuse  to  rise  again  till  some  part  of  the  load  is 


1839.]  LLAMA    AND    ALPACA.  151 

removed.  These  animals  will  rapidly  and  safely  ascend,  or 
descend,  the  steep  mountain  sides,  where  the  ass,  or  mule, 
cannot  maintain  its  footing.  They  cannot  well  travel  more 
than  three  or  four  leagues  during  the  day,  as  they  will  not 
graze  at  night.  The  Indian  drivers,  or  arrieros,  are  very 
fond  of  them,  and  often  attach  bows  of  ribbons  to  their  ears, 
and  hang  bells  round  their  necks.  The  llama  is  not  used  for 
riding  or  draught ;  the  Indian  lads  sometimes  mount  them, 
but  this  is  very  rare.  The  price  of  one  of  these  animals, 
when  full-grown,  is  from  three  to  four  dollars ;  but  in  Cuzco 
and  Ayacucho,  where  they  most  abound,  they  may  be  pur- 
chased in  flocks  for  one  and  a  half  or  two  dollars  per  head. 
The  flesh  of  the  llama  is  spongy  and  of  a  disagreeable  flavor. 
Its  wool  is  used  for  making  coarse  cloths. 

The  alpaca,  or  paco,  whose  wool  enters  into  so  many  fabrics 
now  commonly  worn,  is  smaller  than  the  llama,  and  but  lit- 
tle larger  than  the  common  sheep,  which  it  resembles  in  form. 
Its  neok  is  longer  than  that  of  the  sheep,  and  its  head  is  much 
better  proportioned.  The  fleece  is  from  four  to  five  inches 
long,  and  is  beautifully  soft.  Its  color  is  commonly  white  or 
black,  but  it  is  occasionally  speckled.  These  animals  are 
kept  in  flocks,  in  the  elevated  pastures,  and  are  driven. to  the 
Indian  huts  or  villages,  only  at  shearing  time.  The  wool  is 
made  into  blankets  and  ponchos,  and  always  commands  a 
good  price  for  exportation.  They  are  very  shy,  but  equally 
obstinate.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  separate  one  from  the 
flock  ;  if  the  attempt  is  made,  the  alpaca  will  cast  itself  upon 
the  ground,  and  neither  punishment  nor  entreaty  will  avail 
in  the  least.  If  separated  from  its  species  when  very  young, 
it  may  be  reared ;  otherwise  it  soon  dies,  where  it  cannot 
escape  to  its  companions. 

The  guanaco  is  the  largest  of  the  family  to  which  all  these 
animals  belong.  It  measures  five  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the 
hoof  to  the  top  of  the  head,  and  resembles  the  llama  very 
nearly  in  form,  though  its  color  is  different,  and  its  wool  is 
shorter  and  coarser.  Its  neck,  back,  and  thighs,  are  reddish- 
brown,  and  the  under  part  of  the  body  and  breast,  and  the 


152  GUANAC0    AND    VICUNA.  [1839 

inner  sides  of  the  limbs,  are  of  a  dusky  white.  The  face  i? 
of  a  dark  gray  color,  and  the  lips  of  a  pure  white.  The 
guanacos  live  in  herds,  from  five  to  seven  in  number.  If 
taken  young  they  may  easily  be  tamed,  but  it  is  with  great 
difficulty  that  they  are  trained  to  carry  burdens. 

Still  more  beautiful  than  either  of  the  animals  of  which  it 
is  the  co-genera,  is  the  vicuna.  In  size  it  is  between  the 
llama  and  alpaca,  but  it  has  a  longer  and  more  slender  neck 
than  either.  The  crown  of  its  head,  the  upper  part  of  the 
neck,  and  the  back  and  thighs,  are  of  a  reddish-yellow  color, 
possessing  so  peculiar  a  hue  that  it  is  called  by  the  natives 
color  de  vicuna.  The  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  the  inner 
parts  of  the  limbs,  are  of  a  bright  ochre,  and  the  breast  and 
belly  are  white.  While  the  rainy  season  continues,  the 
vicuna  inhabits  the  ridges  of  the  Cordillera,  but  does  not 
venture  up  the  rocky  acclivities,  as  its  hoofs  are  soft  and  ten- 
der, and  better  adapted  to  turfy  gfbund.  Like  the  guanacor 
it  lives  in  herds,  consisting  of  from  six  to  fifteen  females  and 
one  male ;  the  latter  is  the  leader  and  protector  of  the  herd, 
and  is  as  jealous  of  his  companions  as  the  Grand  Turk  of  the 
beauties  in  his  harem.  Unlike  the  latter,  however,  the  female 
vicunas  exhibit  the  utmost  fidelity  and  affection  to  their  lord 
and  master ;  and  if  he  be  wounded,  when  pursued  by  the 
hunters,  they  will  gather  about  him  in  a  circle,  uttering  their 
shrill  tones  of  lamentation,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be  cap- 
tured rather  than  desert  him.  This  animal  is  principally 
caught  in  what  the  Indians  call  a  chacu;  this  consists  of  a 
circular  inclosure  surrounded  by  stakes  connected  by  ropes 
or  cords.  The  vicunas  are  driven  into  the  chacu  through  an 
opening  left  for  the  purpose,  and  are  prevented  from  leaping 
over  the  ropes  by  the  fluttering  of  colored  rags  which  the 
Indian  women  hang  upon  them.  Thus  secured,  the  animals 
are  easily  dispatched  by  the  bolas. 

The  flesh  of  the  vicuna  is  more  tender  and  better  flavored 
than  that  of  the  llama.  After  a  hunt  the  meat  is  divided 
among  those  engaged  in  it,  and  the  skins  are  always  set 
apart  for  the  church.     The  price  of  a  skin  is  four  reals 


1839.]  DOMESTIC    QUADRUPEDS.  153 

Fine  cloth  and  hats  are  made  of  the  wool,  which  is  soft,  deli- 
cate, and  curly.  The  vicunas  can  be  tamed  when  young ; 
but  when  old  they  are  intractable  and  malicious. 

Most  of  the  domestic  quadrupeds  now  used  by  the  Peru- 
vians are  descended  from  foreign  stock.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  horse,  the  mule,  the  famous  black  cattle  of  the 
Sierra,  the  sheep  and  goats.  The  sheep  were  the  easiest 
acclimated,  and  have  succeeded  the  best.  On  the  great  com- 
mons or  pastures  of  the  Puna,  flocks  may  be  seen  containing 
many  thousands,  which  are  mostly  coarse  wooled.  Few 
sheep  are  raised  on  the  coast,  and  the  markets  of  Lima  and 
the  seaport  towns  are  mainly  supplied  with  mutton  from  the 
interior.  The  fecundity  of  the  sheep  in  Peru  is  remarkable. 
The  farmer  usually  calculates  on  obtaining  one  hundred  and 
fifty  lambs  from  one  hundred  ewes,  at  a  single  yeaning.  The 
ewes  bear  twice  a  year,  also,  generally  in  June  and  De- 
cember. 

Goats  are  common  in  Peru,  and  the  province  of  Piura  is 
especially  famous  for  them.  Great  numbers  of  pigs  are  like- 
wise fattened  for  the  markets ;  when  from  ten  to  sixteen 
months  old,  they  sell  readily  at  from  six  to  nine  dollars  per 
head,  if  of  a  good  breed. 

The  cattle  of  Peru  are,  upon  an  average,  as  large  as  the 
generality  of  English,  American,  or  Spanish  breeds.  The 
horses  and  mules  are  particularly  fine.  The  former  far  ex- 
cel their  Andalusian  progenitors  in  grace  and  elegance  of 
form,  and  in  the  rapidity  and  precision  of  their  movements. 
The  saddle  horses  trained  for  the  Lima  market  are  practiced 
in  every  art  of  the  manege,  and  are  highly  esteemed  by  all 
competent  judges.  Ordinary  horses  and  mules  bring  from 
forty  to  fifty  dollars ;  but  the  best  mules  raised  in  Piura, 
which  is  noted  for  its  excellent  breed,  will  often  command 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  each. 

(10.)  After  spending  about  a  month  in  making  the  neces- 
sary repairs,  furnishing  their  outfits,  and  taking  in  stores,  the 
Exploring  Squadron  completed  its  preparations  for  the  pro- 
jected western  cruise,  on  the  13th  of  July.     At  five  o'clock 


154  SAILING    OP    THE    SQ.UADRON.  [1839. 

in  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  the  flag  ship  of  the  Expedition 
stood  out  to  sea,  having  the  whole  squadron  in  company, 
with  all  canvas  spread.  The  Relief  directed  her  course  tow- 
ards the  Sandwich  Islands,  under  orders  to  proceed  thence 
to  the  United  States,  by  way  of  the  port  of  Sydney ;  but  the 
other  vessels  steered  nearly  due  west  from  Callao. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

\1.)  The  Paumotu  Group. — (2.)  Clermont  de  Tonnerre.  Unsuccessful  Attempt* 
to  Communicate  with  the  Natives.  Other  Islands. — (3.)  Subsequent  Explo- 
rations.— (4.)  The  Lagoons.  Geology. — (5.)  Various  Theories  in  regard  to 
the  Origin  of  this  Group. — (6.)  Productions. — (7.)  Birds  and  Animals. — 
(8.)  Population.    Character.    Dress. — (9.)  Habitations.    Canoes. 

(1.)  Skirting  the  Southern  Oriental  Ocean  on  the  west, 
between  the  tenth  degree  of  southern  latitude  and  the  Tropio 
of  Capricorn,  is  a  group  of  low  coral  islands,  sixty-five  in 
number,  which,  though  comparatively  little  known,  form  one 
of  the  most  striking  features  of  Polynesia,  "  the  region,"  as 
the  name  imports,  "  of  many  islands."  Different  navigators 
visited  this  group  previous  to  the  Expedition  under  Captain 
Wilkes;  but  their  observations  and  reconnoissances  were 
directed  rather  for  hydrographical  purposes,  than  with  a  view 
of  making  valuable  contributions  to  physical  geography  and 
ethnology.  There  is  another  reason  why  the  information  ob- 
tained in  regard  to  these  islands  has  been  so  limited ;  which 
is,  that  the  crews  of  whalers  have  repeatedly  stopped  here, 
and  so  grossly  maltreated  the  poor  and  inoffensive  inhabitants, 
that  it  is  with  great  difficulty  they  can  be  brought  to  have 
the  least  intercourse  with  the  whites. 

This  cluster  was  formerly  designated  on  maps  and  charts, 
as  the  Low  Archipelago ;  but  it  is  now  known  as  the  Pau- 
motu Group,  or  Cloud  of  Islands, — the  term  applied  to  it  by 
1  he  natives  themselves,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Society 
Islands. 

(2.)  It  was  with  considerable  reluctance  that  the  officers 
and  men  of  the  Exploring  Squadron  bade  adieu  to  the  glo- 
rious climate  and  fertile  soil  of  Peru ;  yet  the  prospect  of 
visiting  the  fairy  islands  towards  which  they  were  fast  wend- 


156  CLERMONT    DE    TONNERRE.  [1839. 

ing  their  way,  soon  compensated  them  for  the  absence  of  the 
oeautiful  scenes  they  had  witnessed,  and  they  had  not  been 
out  many  days,  ere  they  began  anxiously  to  cast  their  eyes 
over  the  western  waters,  and  to  fancy  they  already  felt  the 

"  gentle  airs  which  breathed, 
Or  seemed  to  breathe,  fresh  fragrance  from  the  shore." 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  13th  of  August,  they  caught  sight 
of  the  feathery  shrubs  cresting  the  surface  of  Clermont  de 
Tonnerre,  or  Minerva  Island. — English  navigators  have  given 
the  latter  name  to  this  island,  but  the  former,  by  which  it  is 
at  this  time  more  generally  known,  was  bestowed  upon  it  in 
1823,  by  Captain  Duperrey,  of  the  French  navy,  in  honor  of 
his  countryman,  Count  Clermont  de  Tonnerre,  who  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  his  opposition  to  the  Jacobins,  in  1793.  On  approach- 
ing the  island,  the  boats  were  lowered,  and  some  of  the  officers 
and  scientific  corps  started  to  reconnoitre.  Though  obliged 
to  swim  through  the  strong  surf,  they  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  shore,  and  obtained  a  number  of  specimens  of  shells, 
plants,  and  coral.  Several  natives  were  discovered,  but  could 
not  be  induced  to  approach  near  enough  to  have  any  conver- 
sation with  them.  A  second  attempt  to  hold  communication 
with  the  islanders,  which  proved  equally  fruitless,  was  made 
on  the  14th  instant,  by  means  of  one  of  the  crew  of  the  Vin- 
cennes,  a  New  Zealander  by  birth,  who  spoke  the  Tahitian 
language.  It  being  evident  that  further  efforts,  even  if  suc- 
cessful, would  most  likely  lead  to  collisions  with  the  natives, 
the  island  was  surveyed,  by  stationing  the  vessels  at  inter- 
vals around  it,  and  measuring  base  lines  by  means  of  guns 
fired  at  each  station  in  quick  succession,  and  noting  the  lapse 
of  time  between  the  flash  and  the  report ;  and  the  commander 
then  issued  orders  for  the  squadron  to  get  under  way. 

From  Clermont  de  Tonnerre,  the  squadron  proceeded  to 
Serle  Island,  further  to  the  west  and  north,  which  was  sur- 
veyed in  like  manner.  They  then  continued  on  their  north- 
westerly course,  and  on  the  19th  of  August  made  Hennake, 
or  Honden  Island.     On  the  23rd  instant,  they  reached  the 


1839.]  OTHER    ISLANDS    OF    THE    GROUP.  157 

Disappointment  Islands,  (Wytoohee  and  Otooho,)  so  named 
by  Commodore  Byron,  who  discovered  them  in  1765.  The 
natives  of  these  two  islands  appeared  far  more  friendly  than 
those  seen  at  Clermont  de  Tonnerre ;  yet  they  did  not  seem 
over  anxious  to  cultivate  an  acquaintance  with  their  visitors ; 
they  were  shy  and  timid,  and  manifested  great  fear  lest  their 
women,  whom  they  had  concealed,  would  be  taken  from  them 
by  violence.  These  islands  having  been  surveyed,  the  squad- 
ron bore  away  for  Raraka,  one  of  the  principal  islands  be- 
longing to  the  group. 

On  the  29th  instant,  a  small  island,  named  King's  Island, 
after  the  man  at  the  mast-head,  who  first  saw  it,  was  dis- 
covered in  latitude  15°  42'  25"  S.,  and  longitude  144°  38' 
45"  W.  This  is  a  small  island, — being  only  about  four  or 
five  miles  in  circumference,  and  averaging  one  mile  in  width. 
The  highest  point  on  the  island  is  not  over  twenty  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Springs  of  fresh  water  were  found  here  ; 
cocoa-nuts  were  abundant ;  and  the  soil  appeared  to  be  highly 
productive.  No  natives  were  seen,  but  there  were  indications 
that  the  island  had  been  recently  visited  by  persons  engaged 
in  the  pearl-fishery. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  30th  of  August,  they  came 
up  with  Raraka  Island,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  though  few 
in  number,  exhibited  every  feeling  of  kindness  and  friendship. 
The  influence  of  the  missionaries  at  the  Society  Islands  has 
been  extended  hither,  and  a  native  missionary  from  Tahiti 
was  found  among  them.  Every  opportunity  was  afforded  to 
the  commander  of  the  American  Expedition  and  his  officers, 
to  obtain  the  information  they  desired ;  a  few  presents  dis- 
tributed among  the  natives  permanently  secured  their  good 
will ;  and  a  couple  of  sheep  given  to  them  by  the  purser, 
Mr.  Waldron,  elicited  the  warmest  expressions  of  gratitude. 

Leaving  Raraka  towards  sunset  on  the  31st  of  August, 
thar  squadron  proceeded  to  Vincennes  Island,  called  by  the 
natives  Kawahe,  and  from  thence  to  Aratica,  or  Carlshoff 
Island,  where  they  arrived  in  the  morning  of  the  3rd  of  Sep- 
tember.    Hogs  and  fowls  were  found  on  Aratica.     There 


158  ROUTE    TO    TAHITI.  [1839. 

were  large  quantities  of  fish  seen  also  in  the  lagoon.  Cocoa- 
nuts  and  bread-fruit  likewise  appeared  to  be  abundant.  A 
large  supply  of  very  good  water  was  procured  by  the  squad- 
ron, from  a  deep  pool  near  the  lagoon ;  after  obtaining  which, 
the  vessels  again  got  under  way,  with  the  intention  of  mak- 
ing King  George's  Group,  to  the  northeast.  This  being 
found  to  be  impracticable,  without  great  loss  of  time,  the 
tender  was  dispatched  to  survey  the  group,  with  directions 
to  follow  the  squadron  to  Tahiti.  Previous  to  this  time,  on 
the  1st  of  September,  the  Porpoise  had  parted  company  with 
the  other  vessels ;  she  coasted  along  the  south  side  of  Ra- 
raka  Island,  and  then  proceeded  to  Tahiti,  the  appointed 
place  of  rendezvous,  where  she  arrived  on  the  9th  instant, 
having  taken,  in  her  way,  the  islands  of  Katiu,  or  Sacken, 
Makima,  Aratica,  and  Nairsa. 

The  Vincennes  and  Peacock  now  bore  further  westward, 
and  on  the  5th  instant  made  the  island  of  Manhii — the  Watcr- 
landt  of  Schouten  and  Le  Maire,  so  named  by  the  former  of 
those  navigators,  in  allusion  to  a  large  pool  of  fresh  water  on 
the  southwest  side  of  the  island.  Having  surveyed  this 
island,  they  proceeded  to  Ahii  Island,  still  further  to  the 
west,  which  was  found  to  be  uninhabited.  The  two  vessels 
then  separated;  the  Peacock  proceeding  to  Aratua  Island, 
and  thence  around  the  southern  side  of  Nairsa,  or  Dean's 
Island,  the  largest  of  the  Paumotu  Group,  and  the  Vincen- 
nes steering  directly  for  Nairsa,  and  then  continuing  her 
southerly  course,  by  way  of  Metia  Island,  to  Tahiti. 

(3.)  All  the  islands  visited  by  the  squadron  at  this  time 
were  carefully  examined  and  surveyed.  Subsequently,  in  the 
winter  of  1840—1,  the  Porpoise,  in  command  of  Lieutenant- 
Commandant  Ringgold,  was  again  dispatched  to  this  quarter, 
from  the  Sandwich  Islands.  She  visited  the  principal  islands 
which  had  been  missed  on  the  former  occasion ;  and  while 
engaged  in  surveying,  a  small  party,  under  Lieutenant  John- 
son, landed  on  Aratica  Island  with  boring  instruments,  in 
order  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  with  some  precision,  the  geo- 
logical character  of  this  extensive  group.     But  the  rainy  sea- 


1839.]  THE    LAGOONS.  159 

son  having  already  come  on,  the  soil  was  found  to  be  so 
saturated  with  water,  that  very  little  progress  could  be  made 
in  boring,  after  attaining  a  depth  of  twenty  feet,  and  the 
project  was  abandoned  without  arriving  at  any  satisfactory 
results. 

(4.)  A  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  Paumotu  Group,  is 
the  existence  of  large  and  deep  tunnel-shaped  lagoons,  con- 
taining salt  water,  in  the  centre  of  most  of  the  islands.  Some- 
times these  are  entirely  isolated  from  the  surrounding  ocean, 
and,  at  others,  its  waves  break  over  the  broken  ramparts  of 
coral  which  appear  here  and  there  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Such  of  them  as  have  their  pretty  little  lakes  com- 
pletely insulated,  present  a  singularly  picturesque  appearance 
when  viewed  from  the  mast-head  of  a  vessel.  In  the  centre 
is  the  lagoon, — "  deeply,  beautifully  blue," — neither  disturbed 
oy  the  tempest  whose  sullen  roar  is  heard  amidst  the  neigh- 
boring breakers,  nor  ruffled  by  the  tossing  surge  rolled  lazily 
in  upon  the  shore  by  the  soft  winds  of  the  summer ;  imme- 
diately around  this,  is  a  strip  of  earth, — in  some  cases  but  a 
few,  and  in  others  several  hundred  yards,  in  width, — covered 
with  a  vegetation  varying  with  the  character  of  the  island, 
and  either  sparse  or  luxuriant,  according  to  the  nature  and 
depth  of  the  soil ;  and  further  beyond,  extending  to  the  brink 
of  the  ocean,  is  a  belt  of  white  sand  glistening  like  silver  in  the 
perpendicular  rays  of  the  tropical  sun.  Within  is  the  blue 
turquoise,  looking  up  to  the  bright  heavens  reflected  from  its 
polished  surface  ;  about  it,  is  a  gorgeous  setting  of  emeralds ; 
and  the  latter  is,  in  turn,  encircled  by  a  rich  chasing  of 
argent. 

Most  of  the  islands  are  of  a  curvilinear  form,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  Metia,  which  is  a  coral  island  uplifted,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  bold  coralline  shelf,  rarely  exceed  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  in  height.  They  are  composed,  at  least  near  the 
surface,  of  corallites,  conglomerates,  and  limestone,  above 
which  are  coral  debris,  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and  guano, 
with  coral  blocks  occasionally  cropping-out.  The  bottoms 
and  sides  of  the  lagoons  are  lined  with  coral,  and  the  shores, 


160  GEOLOGICAL    FORMATION.  [1839. 

which  are  generally  shelving,  are  likewise  of  the  same  for- 
mation. 

(5.)  Various  theories  have  been  advanced  in  relation  to  the 
geology  of  this  group.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  islands 
were  entirely  the  work  of  the  lithophyte ;  but  the  better  opinion 
seems  to  be,  that  they  are  the  crests  of  submarine  volcanoes, 
the  ruins  and  bottoms  of  whose  craters  are  overgrown  with 
coral.*  Captain  Wilkes  has  based  a  very  pretty  theory  on 
the  result  of  his  examinations,  which  has  certainly  the  merit 
of  originality,  if  not  of  ingenuity.  He  supposes  that  the  coral 
islands  of  the  Pacific  originally  composed  a  vast  continent, 
the  several  portions  of  which  have  been  separated  from  each 
other ;  and  that  the  borders  of  the  islands,  being  less  compact 
in  some  places  than  in  others,  have  been  torn  asunder,  the 
underlying  strata  carried  off  by  the  influx  and  efflux  of  the 
sea,  and  thus  undermined,  the  central  portions  have  caved  in 
and  formed  the  lagoons.t  In  support  of  this  view,  he  lays 
great  stress  upon  the  facts,  that  the  islands  are  evidently  in 
a  state  of  dissolution,  produced,  in  the  main,  by  the  constant 
abrasion  of  the  sea,  and  that  there  are  comparatively  few  liv- 
ing polyps  to  be  found.t 

But  assuming  his  own  premises,  and  taking  his  own  facts, 
although  they  may  tend  strongly  to  show  that  the  islands 
could  not  be  the  work  of  zoophytes,  they  clearly  do  not  prove 
the  existence  of  a  continent;  on  the  contrary,  the  theory 
which  he  advances,  appears  to  be  left  very  much  in  the  situa- 
tion of  the  central  portions  of  the  islands,  without  any  under- 
lying strata  to  support  it.  It  requires  far  less  stretch  of  the 
imagination,  to  suppose  these  islets  to  have  been  thrown  up 
separately,  by  volcanic  agency,  than  that  a  whole  continent 
was  upheaved,  with  its  superincumbent  load  of  corallites. 
The  position  of  the  Paumotu  Group,  also,  with  regard  to  the 
currents  of  the  Pacific,  the  conical  form  of  the  islands,  and 
the  existence  of  coral,  in  a  living,  or  decomposing  state,  all 

*  Lyell's  Geology,  Vol.  Ill,  p.226,  et  seq. 

t  Narrative  of  the  Exploring  Expedition, Vol.  IV,  p.  268,  et  sea. 

|  Narrative,  ut  supra. 


1839.]  PRODUCTIONS.  161 

around  them,  and  in  the  basins  of  the  lagoons,  show,  conclu- 
sively, that  the  coralline  substances  must  have  been  depos- 
ited, either  by  the  animals  themselves,  or  by  the  sea,  since 
the  upheaving  of  these  submarine  mountains.  If  this  be  so, 
why  put  the  fancy  to  so  severe  a  test,  when  a  much  sim- 
pler, more  probable,  and  more  rational  explanation,  is  at 
hand? 

(6.)  The  productions  of  these  islands  are  not  numerous. 
A  species  of  short  wiry  grass,  and  low  tropical  shrubs,  cover 
many  of  them,  but  on  others  there  are  trees  from  fifty  to  sixty 
feet  high.  Endogenous  plants  are  the  most  frequently  met 
with.  The  cocoa-nut  (cocos  nucifera),  the  bread-fruit,  and 
the  pandanus  odoratissimus,  are  the  most  valuable  trees. 
On  the  island  of  Anaa,  the  cocoa-nut  is  exceedingly  abundant. 
Like  the  other  palms,  this  tree  is  tall  and  straight,  and  from 
thirty  to  sixty  feet  in  height.  It  has  leaves  only  at  the  top, 
under  which  the  nuts  hang  in  bunches.  Fresh  blossoms  ap- 
pear every  four  or  five  weeks,  and  there  are  generally  ripe 
fruit,  and  newly  opened  flowers,  on  the  tree  at  the  same  time. 
One  tree  will  sometimes  produce  a  hundred  nuts  within  the 
year.  There  are  few  trees  which  furnish  more  useful  pro- 
ducts to  the  islander.  Besides  the  milk  and  kernel  of  the 
nut,  whose  nutritive  qualities  are  so  well  known,  the  woody 
shell  of  the  trunk,  when  old  enough  to  be  tough  and  durable, 
is  employed  in  building  huts  and  canoes ;  the  leaves  are  used 
for  thatching  and  ceiling  houses,  and  for  making  baskets  and 
wicker-work ;  and  of  the  fibres  of  the  nut,  twine  and  sennit, 
and  even  strong  ropes  and  cables,  are  twisted,  which  last 
longer  in  salt  water  than  those  made  of  hemp. 

Pisonias,  tournefortias,  euphorbias,  and  apapas,  are  found 
on  the  islands.  Hibiscus  tiliacus,  bamboo,  and  wild  cane, 
are  likewise  common.  Among  the  principal  roots  are  the 
taro,  (arum  esculentum,)  and  the  sweet  potato, — the  latter 
probably  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  The  leaves  of  the 
taro  resemble  those  of  the  water-lily :  the  roots,  which  are 
large,  thick,  and  oblong,  are  baked  and  eaten  by  the  natives, 
and  a  favorite  paste,  called  po'e\  is  also  made  of  them.     Mel- 


162  BIRDS    AND   ANIMALS.  [1839 

ons,  yams,  and  tobacco,  are  more  rare  than  other  products, 
but  they  thrive  excellently  well  where  they  have  been  intro- 
duced. 

(7.)  Pigs  and  fowls  are  the  only  domesticated  birds  or 
animals,  except  the  sheep  recently  introduced,  on  which  the 
inhabitants  rely  for  food ;  and  these  are  alone  found  upon 
those  islands  to  which  the  influence  of  the  Tahitian  mission- 
aries has  extended.  Fish  are  plentiful  in  the  lagoons,  and 
are  principally  caught  in  pens  into  which  they  are  driven ; 
latterly,  however,  nets  woven  of  cocoa-nut  fibres  have  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  taking  them.  Cetaceous  animals  of 
all  kinds  abound  in  the  vicinity  of  the  islands.  Aquatic 
birds  of  almost  every  species  are  equally  numerous,  and  seme 
of  the  uninhabited  islets  are  perfect  rookeries.  Among  the 
sea-fowl,  the  frigate  and  the  tropic  bird,  the  gannet,  and  the 
sooty  tern,  are  the  most  important. 

Crabs  and  snakes — to  the  former  of  which  the  natives  are 
especially  partial — exist  in  great  numbers.  The  pearl  oyster 
is  tolerably  abundant  in  the  lagoons,  and  the  fishery  promises 
at  no  distant  day  to  be  quite  valuable.  Quantities  of  biche 
de  mer,  or  the  sea-slug,  are  also  obtained  on  the  rocks ;  and 
this  may,  in  like  manner,  ultimately  prove  an  important  arti- 
cle of  commerce. 

(8.)  It  is  difficult  to  form  any  precise  estimate  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  Paumotu  Group.  It  can  scarcely  exceed  ten 
thousand,  and  very  likely  may  not  be  over  eight.  Full  on? 
half  of  this  number  live  on  the  island  of  Anaa ;  one  fourtb 
on  Gambier  Island ;  and  the  remainder  are  scattered  aboui 
among  the  different  islands, — some  containing  from  one  to 
five  hundred,  and  others  not  exceeding  twenty  or  thirty  in- 
habitants. 

Since  the  first  discovery  of  these  islands,  and  since  the 
establishment  of  the  missionaries  at  Tahiti,  the  character  of  the 
population,  particularly  on  those  members  of  the  group  west 
of  144p  W.  longitude,  has  changed  materially  for  the  better. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  easternmost  islands  are  now,  or  were 
recently,  cannibals ;   but  on  the  western  islands,  there  are 


1839.]  POPULATION.  163 

already  many  native  missionaries,  and  a  degree  of  comfort 
and  prosperity  is  witnessed  among  the  people,  which  com- 
pares favorably  with  th<5  loathsome  wretchedness  exhibited 
further  to  the  east. 

In  regard  to  the  physical  character  of  the  inhabitants,  there 
is  a  wide  field  for  speculation.  The  distinctive  features  of 
the  Malay  and  the  aboriginal  American,  are  presented  in  a 
blended  form,  and  now  and  then  some  peculiar  characteristic 
of  the  Papuan  negro  is  observed,  which  threatens  to  overturn 
all  the  carefully-constructed  theories  of  the  ethnologist.  It 
is  by  no  means  improbable  that  these  islands  were  originally 
peopled  by  American  aborigines  and  Asiatics,  or  by  the  de- 
scendants of  those  races  found  intermingled  on  the  other 
islands  of  the  Pacific ;  and,  perhaps,  some  of  the  Papuan 
stock  inhabiting  the  Admiralty  Islands,  New  Ireland,  New 
Britain,  New  Hebrides,  etc.,  may  have  found  their  way 
hither.  Trees  of  American  and  Asiatic  growth,  have  been 
often  carried  to  this  part  of  the  ocean,  by  the  winds  and  cur- 
rents ;  and  Indians  in  their  canoes,  and  Japanese  in  their 
junks,  who  had  strayed  too  far  out  to  sea,  have  been  picked 
up  by  European  and  American  vessels,  in  the  middle  of  the 
Pacific.  Junks,  boats,  or  canoes,  might  easily  pass  in  the 
variable  winds,  without  the  tropics,  from  the  Asiatic  coast 
and  the  neighboring  islands,  till  meeting  with  the  trades, 
they  would  naturally  be  driven  towards  the  Sandwich  or  the 
Society  islands ;  and  they  might  also  be  blown  in  that  direc- 
tion, by  strong  westerly  winds  prevailing  for  a  long  time.* 

The  dress  of  the  females  usually  consists  of  a  dirty  piece 
of  tapa,  swathed  about  the  form  like  a  petticoat ;  but  among 


*  Lyell  well  remarks  in  his  Principles  of  Geology,  (vol.  ii.  p.  121,)  that  if  the 
whole  of  mankind,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  family  occupying  either  of  the 
two  great  continents,  or  Australia,  or  ex  3n  one  of  the  coral  islets  of  the  Pacific, 
were  cut  off,  "  we  should  expect  their  descendants,  though  they  should  never 
become  more  enlightened  than  the  South  Sea  Islanders  or  Esquimaux,  to  spread, 
in  the  course  of  ages,  over  the  whole  earth,  diffused  partly  by  the  tendency  of 
population  to  increase  beyond  the  means  of  subsistence  in  a  limited  district, 
and  partly  by  the  accidental  drilling  of  canoes  by  tides  and  currents  to  distant 
shores." 


164  costume.  [1839 

the  more  intelligent  and  civilized  natives,  mantles  of  delicate 
matting,  made  from  the  bark  of  the  hibiscus,  are  worn  over 
the  shoulders,  and  a  pareu,  or  robe  of  cotton  cloth,  is  wound 
round  the  body.  The  maro,  or  covering  for  the  loins,  and  a 
mat  of  pandanus  leaves,  are  the  principal  articles  of  clothing 
for  the  men.  The  children  are  allowed  to  go  entirely  naked. 
Upon  a  gala  day,  however,  the  Paumotuan  costume  exhibits 
a  droll  melange,  representing,  in  some  feature,  that  of  every 
nation  on  the  globe.  These  holiday  dresses  consist  of  articles 
obtained  by  barter  from  the  crews  of  vessels  touching  at  the 
islands,  and  are  in  general  highly  prized. 

Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  islands,  wbose  ex- 
treme squalidity  and  wretchedness  so  pointedly  contradict 
the  assertion  of  Locke,  that  "  a  person  is  a  thinking,  intelli- 
gent being,"  it  is  customary  to  bedaub  the  face  with  cocoa- 
nut  oil  and  ashes.  The  beauties  of  these  cosmetics  are  never 
so  well  appreciated  by  the  European  or  American,  as  when 
going  through  with  the  process  of  salutation.  When  they 
wish  to  welcome  a  stranger,  they  approach  him  with  a  purring 
noise,  like  that  of  a  cat,  clasp  the  right  arm  about  his  neck, 
and  rub  their  noses  across  his,  backward  and  forward,  three 
times ;  and  when  the  ceremony  is  ended,  it  will  not  surprise 
him  to  find  that,  in  color  at  least,  they  are  all  birds  of  a 
feather.  On  the  other  islands  a  little  more  refinement  is  ex- 
hibited at  the  toilet,  and  cocoa-nut  oil  and  turmeric*  are  used 
to  give  a  bright  shining  polish,  and  an  orange  tint,  to  the 
complexion. 

(9.)  As  great  a  difference  exists  among  the  Paumotuans, 
in  the  mode  of  constructing  their  habitations,  as  in  their 
dress.  On  some  of  the  islands,  they  are  mere  huts,  consist- 
ing of  four  or  five  poles  stuck  into  the  ground  at  both  ends, 
with  strips  of  cocoa-nut  wood,  or  bamboos,  laid  upon  them 
horizontally,  and  tied  down,  over  which  grass  and  pandanus 
leaves,  or  mats,  are  spread :  they  are  from  six  to  eight  feet 

*  The  turmeric  dye  of  the  East  Indies,  and  of  the  Pacific  islands,  is  obtained 
from  the  curcuma  longa,  a  very  different  plant  from  the  blood-root  (sanguinaria 
tanadtnsis)  of  America,  to  which  the  name  is  sometimes  applied. 


1839.]  HABITATIONS    AND    CANOES.  165 

long,  four  feet  high  in  the  centre,  and  five  feet  wide.  In  the 
other  parts  of  the  group  neat  and  tasteful  houses  are  con- 
structed of  stakes  of  the  bread-fruit  tree  driven  into  the 
ground, — the  framework  of  the  walls  being  composed  of  bam- 
boo or  hibiscus  rods  ;  they  are  thatched  with  pandanus  leaves, 
and  mats  are  hung  against  the  sides  when  the  state  of  the 
weather  requires  it.  Some  of  these  framed  huts  are  mere 
temporary  structures,  and  may  be  taken  up,  and  removed 
from  place  to  place,  like  the  tents  of  a  nomad. 

The  canoes  of  the  natives  are  made  of  the  excavated  trunks 
of  the  pisonia  and  other  trees,  or  of  strips  of  cocoa-nut  wood 
sewed  together  over  a  framework.  In  navigating  from  one 
island  to  another,  double  canoes,  which  are  two  single  ones 
lashed  side  and  side,  are  mainly  used.  Across  these  is  laid 
a  platform,  above  which  is  sometimes  spread  an  awning 
of  plaited  cocoa  leaves.  Moveable  masts  are  inserted'',  with 
vines  for  stays.  The  sails  are  made  of  matting  of  the  pan- 
danus leaf,  and  the  oars  and  paddles  of  hibiscus  wood.  Out- 
riggers are  also  common,  especially  among  the  vessels  be* 
longing  to  the  inhabitants  of  Anaa,  or  Chain  Island. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

(1.)  View  of  Tahiti  from  the  Sea. — (2.)  Size  and  Description  of  the  Group. — 
(3.)  Rivers.  Harbors.  Principal  Towns. — (4.)  Form  of  Government.  Queen 
Pomare. — (5.)  Social  and  Physical  Condition  of  the  Inhabitants. — (6.)  Dress. 
Manners  and  Customs. — (7.)  Trees.  Fruits.  Vegetable  Products. — (8.)  Zo- 
ology.— (9.)  Dwellings. — (10.)  Commerce.  Manufactures. — (11.)  Influence 
of  the  Missionaries. 

(1.)  Taiiiti  well  deserves  the  appellation  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  it,  of  "  the  brightest  gem  of  the  Pacific." 
When  its  tall  pinnacled  cliffs  and  rugged  peaks  are  first 
descried,  far  out  at  sea,  but  little  promise  is  afforded  of  the 
luxuriant  beauty  and  magnificence  which  a  nearer  view  pre- 
sents. The  object  that  soonest  attracts  the  attention,  is  the 
fringe  of  snow-white  surf,  wreathing  itself,  as  if  instinct  with 
life,  about  the  coral  reef  that  encircles  the  island.  Within 
this  is  a  girdle  of  quiet  water, — deep,  calm,  and  placid, — 
sheltered  from  the  ocean-storm  by  the  line  of  breakers,  and 
rarely  disturbed,  save  by  the  soft  invigorating  breezes  wafted 
from  the  shore, 

"  where  the  pale  citrons  blow, 
And  golden  fruits  through  dark  green  foliage  glow." 

In  the  centre  of  the  circle  is  the  island  itself, — the  coast 
irregular  in  outline,  and  indented  with  numerous  bays,  but 
having  a  decidedly  pleasing  effect ;  beyond  it,  extend  a  suc- 
cession of  undulating  slopes  and  pleasant  valleys,  carpeted 
with  rich  verdure  or  enamelled  with  flowers,  interspersed 
among  embowering  groves  and  noble  forests,  conspicuous  in 
which,  are  the  leafy  canopies  overshadowing,  like  the  pana- 
che of  the  Peruvian  warrior,  the  branchless  trunks  of  the 
stately  cocoa ;  and  in  the  midst  of  these  Hesperian  gardens, 


1839.]  VIEW    OP    TAHITI.  167 

rise  the  lofty  mountains  of  Aorai  and  Orohena — the  former 
seven,  and  the  latter  nearly  nine  thousand  feet,  above  the 
level  of  the  sea — with  their  rough  sides  decked  with  the  vines 
and  parasitic  plants,  creeping  up  over  the  escarped  rocks  to 
their  summits,  around  which  hover  clouds  of  white  mist,  like 
guardian  angels  from  the  spirit-land. 

Contrasting  finely  with  the  bright  mantle  of  vegetation 
spread  over  the  lower  portions  of  the  island,  are  the  littla 
streams  and  rivulets  coursing  down  the  mountain  ravines, 
and  winding  their  way,  like  threads  of  silver,  between  thick 
banks  of  foliage  preserving  ever  its  perennial  bloom,  hither 
and  thither,  till  they  mingle  their  crystal  waters  with  those 
of  the  dark  green  sea.  The  landscape  is  dotted,  too,  with 
clustering  hamlets,  composed  of  the  sombre  huts  of  the  na- 
tives, or  the  more  modern  and  more  tasteful  cottages  of  the 
foreign  residents.  In  the  harbors  there  is  always  more  or 
less  shipping,  either  men  of  war,  or  merchant  vessels,  visit- 
ing the  island  for  purposes  of  traffic,  or  to  obtain  supplies. 
Gay  flags  and  streamers  float  from  their  mastheads,  and 
numberless  canoes  may  be  seen  plying  between  them  and  the 
shore,  reminding  the  beholder  how  vast  has  been  the  change 
since  the  pennant  of  the  gallant  but  unfortunate  Cook  first 
appeared  in  these  waters.  The  flowers  are  not  more  bright, 
perhaps, — the  grove  and  the  forest  not  more  beautiful, — but 
the  air  is  no  longer  filled  with  scents  of  slaughter,  nor  the 
sky  darkened  with  the  smoke  of  human  sacrifices ;  the  songs 
of  David  are  borne  on  the  evening  wind  instead  of  the  wild 
notes  of  the  savage,  and  the  dark  and  bloody  rites  of  pagan- 
ism have  given  place  to  the  solemn  and  impressive  worship 
of  the  Christian ! 

(2.)  The  group  now  known  as  the  Society  Islands,  of 
which  Tahiti,  or  Otaheite,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  member,  was  first  discovered  by 
Captain  Cook,  in  1769.  It  consists  of  eight  large  islands, 
and  several  smaller  ones.  The  names  of  the  principal  islands 
are,  Tahiti  and  Eimeo, — sometimes  distinguished  from  the 
others  under  the  name  of  the  Georgian  Group, — Raiatea, 


168  DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    ISLANDS.  [1839. 

Huahine,  Tahaa,  Borabora,  Tubai  and  Maurua.  The  first 
two,  with  some  small  islands,  form  one  cluster,  and  the  others 
compose  a  separate  cluster,  over  one  hundred  miles  to  the 
northwest ;  but  all  lie  between  latitude  16°  and  18°  S.,  and 
longitude  149°  and  152°  W. 

Tahiti,  the  largest  and  most  populous,  is  one  hundred  and 
eight  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains  seven  thousand 
inhabitants,  supposed  to  be  not  far  from  one  half  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  whole  group.  This  island  rises  gradually  from 
the  sea,  and  in  the  interior  is  mountainous ;  extensive  and 
fertile  valleys  open  on  every  side  towards  the  ocean ;  and 
from  the  water's  edge  to  its  topmost  heights,  it  is  clothed 
with  an  abundant  vegetation  constantly  renewing  the  fresh- 
ness and  vigor  of  its  appearance.  Eimeo,  ten  miles  west  of 
Tahiti,  is  about  forty  miles  in  circumference ;  it  is  still  more 
wild  and  mountainous,  and  has  an  abrupt  coast,  rising  in 
some  places  precipitously  to  the  height  of  twenty-five  hundred 
feet ;  it  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
the  central  station  of  the  missionaries,  where  a  separate  school 
for  the  education  of  their  children,  and  a  printing  office — the 
latter  on  a  limited  scale — have  been  established. 

Ulietea,  or  Raiatea,  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  north- 
west of  Tahiti,  is  sixty  miles  in  circumference  ;  it  is  encircled 
by  a  reef  of  coral,  bordered  by  numerous  small  islets,  and 
has  a  bold,  mountainous,  and  highly  picturesque  appearance. 
Huahine,  fifteen  miles  east  of  Raiatea,  is  nearly  as  large ; 
this,  as  well  as  the  other  islands,  partake  of  the  same  general 
features  of  those  which  have  been  described.  All  consist  of 
basalt  and  other  igneous  formations.  Their  rounded  sum- 
mits, and  the  character  and  composition  of  the  soil,  clearly 
indicate  their  volcanic  origin.  Iron  is  so  abundant  on  some 
of  the  hills  that  the  magnet  cannot  be  used,  and  the  sand  on 
the  sea-coast  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  it.  Olivine 
and  pyroxene  are  plentifully  distributed  through  the  rocks, 
and  lava  everywhere  abounds. 

(3.)  From  the  small  size  of  these  islands,  it  could  not  be 
expected  that  they  would  contain  any  considerable  rivers  or 


1839.]  RIVERS    AND   HARBORS,  169 

lakes.  There  are  a  number  of  mountain  torrents,  however, 
dignified  with  the  name  of  rivers,  which  are  swollen  to  such 
an  extent  during  the  rainy  season  that  it  is  really  dangerous 
to  attempt  to  ford  them.  The  principal  of  these  on  the  island 
of  Tahiti,  are  the  Pappino  on  the  north,  and  the  Ooaigarra 
on  the  south  side,  both  rapid  streams,  but  narrow,  and  usually 
only  a  few  feet  deep.  Tahiti  also  has  a  pretty  lake,  seven- 
teen hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  called  Lake 
Waiherea ;  it  is  of  an  oval  shape,  ninety-six  feet  deep,  half  a 
mile  long,  and  one  third  of  a  mile  in  width  ;  and  is  bordered 
with  a  beautiful  fringe  of  woody  plants.  The  lake  has  no 
visible  outiet,  but  the  natives  say  that  if  a  bread-fruit  be 
thrown  in,  it  will  appear  after  a  while  in  a  spring,  whose 
waters  gush  forth  from  the  hill-side,  at  a  distance  of  nearly 
three  miles. 

The  excellence  of  the  harbors  of  Tahiti  and  her  sister 
islands,  is  well  known  to  navigators.  Deeply  embayed  be- 
tween lofty  hills,  which  have  a  sheer  descent  to  the  water, 
and  often  many  hundred  feet  below,  or  faced  by  perpendicu- 
lar piers  of  coral,  and  protected  in  front  from  the  waves  of 
the  ocean,  by  the  massive  breakwaters  reared  by  the  same 
skilful  engineer,  they  afford  ample  and  perfect  security  against 
both  wind  and  tide.  Papieti,  on  the  north  side  of  Tahiti,  is 
the  most  capacious  and  the  first  in  importance.  Fronting  a 
deep  recess  in  the  island,  is  a  reef  of  coral  trending  away  for 
several  miles  to  the  east,  but  broken  just  on  the  right  of  the 
fiorde,  by  a  stream  of  fresh  water  putting  in,  which,  it  is  said, 
always  interrupts  the  labors  of  the  polyp.  Tall  hills  rise  on 
either  side  of  the  recess,  and  between  these  and  the  reef,  is 
the  harbor,  or  bay,  of  Papieti.  It  is  about  one  mile  in  length, 
and  half  a  mile  in  width.  It  affords  a  deep  and  secure  an- 
chorage,— large  vessels  being  safely  moored  within  a  stone's 
throw  of  the  shore, — and  is  capacious  enough  to  accommodate 
a  hundred  sail. 

As  you  pass  through  the  opening  in  the  reef,  and  enter  the 
circular  and  land-locked  harbor,  the  beautiful  little  coral 
island  of  Moto-utu  starts  up  on  the  left,  like  Aphrodite,  from 

8 


170  papieti.  [1839. 

the  frothy  sea,  with  its  cool,  verdant  groves,  and  its  old, 
dilapidated  fortress,  over  which  waves  the  red  flag  of  Tahiti.* 
Across  the  fine  sheet  of  smooth  water  spreading  out  before 
you,  along  the  middle  of  the  curvature  of  the  hot  sandy  beach, 
lies  the  town  of  Papieti,  backed  by  pinnacle-shaped  moun- 
tains, and  half-hidden  beneath  the  dark  green  foliage  of  the 
bread-fruit, — beneath  the  round-leaved  myrtle,  the  luxuriant 
palm,  and  the  noble  cocoa.  The  white  cottages  of  the  foreign 
residents,  with  their  thatched  roofs  and  green  blinds,  and  the 
light-built  and  sombre-looking  huts,  of  the  natives,  are  scattered 
along  the  shore,  or  peep  out,  here  and  there,  from  the  thickets 
of  limes  and  oranges  in  which  they  are  imbosomed. 

Papieti  is  the  largest  town  on  the  island,  or  in  the  group. 
It  is  difficult  to  form  any  estimate  in  regard  to  the  popula- 
tion. The  habits  of  the  Tahitian  are  extremely  migratory ; 
his  wants  are  easily  and  quickly  supplied,  and  a  few  hours' 
work  will  provide  him  with  a  comfortable  habitation.  When 
there  are  a  number  of  foreign  vessels  in  port,  and  on  other 
great  occasions,  the  village  is  overrun  with  inhabitants,  who 
flock  thither  in  crowds,  but  soon  betake  themselves  again  to 
other  parts  of  the  island.  This  is  the  ordinary  residence  of 
the  queen  and  the  foreign  consuls.  It  boasts  a  wharf  and  a 
warehouse,  and  the  harbor  is  probably  the  best  and  safest  in 
the  Pacific ;  it  is  frequently  visited  by  whalers,  and  is  now 
second  only,  in  commercial  importance,  to  Honolulu. 

Five  miles  east  of  Papieti  is  the  town  of  Matavai,  which 
has  a  fine  harbor.  Vessels  pass  up  to  it  from  Papieti,  inside 
the  reef.  It  is  situated  on  lower  ground ;  but  its  location, 
nevertheless,  is  quite  pleasant.  Point  Venus,  on  Matavai 
Bay,  is  chiefly  celebrated,  and,  indeed,  derives  its  name, 
from  the  fact,  that  Captain  Cook  observed  the  transit  of 
Venus  over  the  sun's  disk  from  this  place.  Papoa  and  Toa- 
noa,  also  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island,  have  good  harbors. 
On  the  south  side  is  Otapuna,  next  in  size  and  importance 
to  Papieti ;  it  is  built  on  a  low  point  of  land,  and  the  pearl 

*  The  Tahitian  flag  consists  of  two  red  horizontal  stripes,  with  a  white  one 
between  them. 


1839.]  ESTABLISHMENT    OP    MISSIONS.  171 

fishery  of  the  Paumotu  Group  centres  here.  Papara  and 
Panawea,  both  of  which  have  convenient  harbors,  are  on  the 
same  side  of  the  island. 

Taloo  is  the  principal  town  and  harbor  on  Eimeo.  The 
anchorage  ground  is  an  inlet  three  miles  in  depth,  inclosed 
between  walls  of  precipitous  mountains ;  it  is  deep  and  spa- 
cious, and,  though  exposed  to  the  western  winds,  they  do  not 
often  blow  hard  enough  to  injure  shipping.  At  its  head  is  a 
broad  flat  of  alluvion,  well  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
sugar-cane.  Papoa,  also  on  the  northern  side  of  the  island, 
and  Afareaitu  on  the  south  side,  are  safe  and  excellent  har- 
bors. 

(4.)  Europeans  became  earlier  acquainted  with  the  Society 
Islands  than  with  any  of  the  other  groups  in  the  Pacific  ;  and 
the  language  of  Tahiti  was  the  first  Polynesian  language  re- 
duced to  writing  by  the  English  missionaries.  As  early  as 
1797,  there  were  eighteen  missionaries  settled  on  the  island 
of  Tahiti ;  and,  in  1814,  there  were  about  fifty  adult  natives 
who  had  embraced  Christianity.  Although  the  number  of 
converts  was  so  few,  a  general  and  visible  improvement  fol- 
lowed the  introduction  of  Christianity  ;  many  useful  arts 
were  introduced ;  schools  were  founded ;  the  meliorating  in- 
fluences of  -the  law  of  kindness  and  love  daily  became  more 
manifest ;  and  the  change  was  finally  marked  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  comparative  order  and  tranquillity,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  a  form  of  government,  modelled,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  English  missionaries,  after  the  British  Constitution. 

The  present  constitution  was  originally  framed  by  the  mis- 
sionaries in  1823,  and  was  revised  in  1826.  The  form  of 
government,  like  that  of  England,  is  a  limited  monarchy. 
The  crown  is  hereditary  in  the  male  or  female  line.  The 
sovereign  appoints  all  the  principal  officers  of  state,  the  gov- 
ernors of  the  different  islands,  and  the  chiefs  of  districts  ;  and 
has  an  unqualified  veto  on  all  legislative  enactments,  though 
a  bill  which  has  failed  to  receive  the  royal  signature  may 
subsequently  be  revised  and  modified.  The  legislature  is 
composed  of  two  members  from  3ach  district,  who  are  trien- 


172  QUEEN    POMARE.  [1839 

nially  elected ;  annual  sessions  are  held  for  the  general  pur- 
poses of  legislation,  and  extra  sessions  may  at  any  time  be 
convened.  Each  district  has  a  court  of  its  own,  and  there  is 
also  a  general  supreme  court  consisting  of  seven  judges,  five 
of  whom  reside  at  Tahiti,  and  two  at  Eimeo.  All  the  So- 
ciety Islands,  and  some  of  the  Paumotu  Group,  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  the  sovereign ;  but  the  more  remote  islands 
are  little  known  or  civilized,  and  are  not  represented  in  the 
national  assembly. 

Aimata,  or  Pomare  IV,  the  present  queen,  is  the  grand- 
daughter of  king  Pomare  I,  so  well  known  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  Tahiti.  She  is  now  (1849)  about  thirty-nine  years 
of  age,  is  a  good-looking,  though  not  a  pretty  woman,  and  has 
a  clear  olive  complexion,  dark  intelligent  eyes,  and  black 
hair.  She  is  not  above  the  medium  height,  and  is  somewhat 
inclined  to  corpulency.  The  queen  has  been  twice  married. 
She  was  divorced  from  her  first  husband.  Her  second  is 
called  Pomare-taui,  or  "  Pomare's-man,"  equivalent,  proba- 
bly, to  "  king-consort,"  in  the  more  refined  courts  of  Europe. 
He  is  nine  years  younger  than  the  queen,  and  is  a  gay,  easy- 
humored  man,  comparing  favorably  with  the  other  young 
men  of  Tahiti  in  personal  appearance,  but  rather  too  much 
given  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks.  Matrimonial  squab- 
bles are  not  wanting,  it  is  said,  to  disturb  the  harmony  of  the 
royal  menage.  When  her  consort  was  a  mere  lad,  Pomare 
exercised  quite  a  motherly  sort  of  authority  over  him,  and, 
if  reports  be  true,  frequently  applied  the  rod  of  correction. 
But  as  soon  as  he  reached  man's  estate,  the  tables  were 
turned ;  although  she  could  rate  him  soundly  as  ever  with 
her  tongue,  she  was  no  match  for  him  in  physical  strength, 
and  ho  repaid  the  inflictions  of  his  august  spouse,  in  kind,  with 
something  added,  too,  in  the  shape  of  interest.  Happily,  per- 
haps, for  the  safety  of  the  state,  both  parties  seem  to  havo 
been  benefited  by  this  reciprocal  chastisement,  and  jog  along 
together,  without  seriously  disturbing  the  peace  of  the  island 

Both  their  majesties  are  fond  of  state  and  display.  There 
are  sentinels  constantly  parading  in  front  of  the  royal  resi- 


1839.]  POLITICS    OP    TAHITI.  173 

dence,  and  when  the  queen  attends  church,  or  shows  herself 
to  her  loving  subjects,  she  is  accompanied  by  a  body-guard, 
as  an  escort,  consisting  of  about  one  hundred  men,  com- 
manded by  officers  who  can  hardly  be  called  martinets  in 
discipline.  The  uniform  of  this  corps  is  a  blue  coat  with 
white  pantaloons.  The  former  is  made  after  various  pat- 
terns, and  worn  in  different  ways — sometimes  being  buttoned, . 
sometimes  hooked,  and  sometimes  sewed  about  the  person  of 
the  wearer.  The  guard  have  muskets ;  but,  on  Sundays, 
they  are  only  allowed  to  carry  their  ramrods.  When  the 
queen  and  her  husband  issue  forth,  the  royal  standards  are 
borne  before  them,  and  the  soldiers  follow,  two  by  two,  with 
the  rabble  at  their  heels.  If  an  aquatic  excursion  is  the 
order  of  the  day,  a  whaleboat,  dignified  as  the  royal  barge, 
receives  the  cortege. 

Although  royalty  is  so  often  exhibited  in  caricature,  at 
Tahiti,  it  is  probable  that  the  people  of  this,  and  the  other 
islands  belonging  to  the  group,  are  as  well-governed,  and  that 
as  great  a  degree  of  order  is  observed  as  in  those  countries 
where  there  is  more  real  brilliancy  and  show.  Generally 
speaking,  the  statesmen  and  politicians  of  the  Society  Islands 
are  well-informed,  reasonable,  and  sagacious.  They  always 
appear  willing  to  redress  grievances,  and  anxious  to  promote 
the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  their  fellow-citizens.  As  in 
more  enlightened  countries,  there  are  two  opposing  parties, 
one  of  which  is  headed  by  the  queen  and  the  missionaries, 
and  the  other,  by  Pabfai,  chief  judge  of  the  supreme  court, 
and  Hitoti  and  Taua,  two  prominent  chiefs.  The  former 
are  constantly  proposing  new  innovations  in  laws  and  cus- 
toms, and  the  latter,  though  by  no  means  unfriendly  to 
reform,  have  resisted,  with  more  or  less  earnestness,  their 
adoption.  Sometimes  the  queen  and  her  advisers  have 
pushed  their  favorite  measures  with  too  great  zeal  and  sever- 
ity, and  their  opponents,  by  appealing  to  the  national  feel- 
ing and  spirit,  or  threatening  resistance,  have  achieved  a 
temporary  success ;  but  the  queen  usually  manages,  in  one 
way  or  another,  eventually  to  secure  everything  she  wishes. 


174  STATE    OP    SOCIETY.  [1839 

She  rarely  fails,  also,  in  maintaining  the  dignity  of  her  queenly 
state,  though  once  in  a  while,  as  in  the  difficulty  with  France 
in  1842-3,  obliged  to  yield  to  the  force  of  circumstances,  or 
compelled  to  humor  the  caprices  of  Pomare-taui,  who,  at  the 
dictation  of  the  foreign  residents,  occasionally  interferes  in 
questions  of  state,  and,  for  the  most  part,  successfully. 

The  police  regulations,  especially  on  the  island  of  Tahiti, 
are  excellent,  though  some  might  term  them  severe.  At 
eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  a  gun  is  fired,  followed  by  an- 
other at  an  interval  of  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  all  strag- 
glers found  in  the  streets  are  carried  to  the  guard-house  by 
the  patrol.  The  members  of  the  police,  with  few  exceptions, 
are  faithful  and  efficient,  and  do  not  leave  much  cause  to 
regret  the  abolition  of  the  ancient  custom  of  taboo* 

(5.)  In  enterprise,  industry,  and  intelligence,  this  people 
are,  doubtless,  far  behind  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands ;  yet,  one  who  has  read  the  accounts  of  the  old  navi- 
gators, can  hardly  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  vast  change 
effected  by  the  missionaries.  The  natives  of  this  group, 
though  indolent  by  nature,  were  originally  wild  and  turbu- 
lent, when  aroused,  and  fierce  and  vindictive.  Long  and 
bloody  wars  desolated  the  islands ;  parental  affection,  love, 
and  tenderness,  were  almost  entirely  unknown  ;  woman  was 
sunk  in  the  lowest  state  of  degradation ;  polygamy  was 
common ;  a  species  of  marriage  was  in  vogue,  but  not  es- 
teemed sacred  ;  female  virtue  was  prized  as  a  thing  of  little 
worth  ;  depravity  and  licentiousness  abounded  ;  sexual  indul- 
gences and  infanticide  were  encouraged  by  a  singular  insti- 
tution called  the  Areo'i;\  all  the  finer  feelings  of  humanity 
were  nearly  obliterated,  and 

"  hardened  mothers  in  the  grave  could  lay 
Their  living  babes  with  no  compunctious  tear." 

*  This  custom,  formerly  prevailing  throughout  Polynesia,  but  now  nearly  done 
away,  may  be  regarded  as  something  like  a  police  regulation  in  a  rude  and  bar- 
barous state  of  society,  and,  no  doubt,  was  highly  beneficial,  in  curbing  the  pas- 
sions, and  controlling  the  lawlessness,  of  the  savages,  even  though  it  may  some  • 
times  have  been  the  instrument  of  wrong  and  oppression. 

f  The  baneful  influence  of  this  society  once  extended  over  the  whole  Pacific. 


1839.]  CHARACTER   OF   THE    PEOPLE.  175 

There  was,  indeed,  little  to  encourage  the  missionary  in 
such  a  condition  of  society,  and  the  light  of  civilization  strug- 
gled, long  before  it  was  able  to  penetrate  the  Cimmerian  dark- 
ness which  overspread  the  Pacific  like  a  pall.  But  the  Chris- 
tian soldier,  clad  in  the  robes  of  righteousness,  and  brandishing 
a  weapon  from  the  arsenal  of  Jehovah,  fought  and  toiled,  long 
and  manfully,  till  his  labors  were  ultimately  crowned  with 
success ;  and,  though  he  may  have  achieved  less  than  what 
he  might  once  have  anticipated,  the  good  seed  has  been 
planted,  and  he  can  console  himself  with  the  hope,  that  in 
God's  own  time  it  will  yield  an  abundant  harvest. 

True  enough,  there  is  great  room  for  improvement;  the 
influence  of  the  foreign  traders,  like  their  interests,  has  been 
adverse  to  that  of  the  missionaries ;  outbreaks  and  disturb- 
ances, fomented  by  them,  are  sometimes  witnessed ;  and  the 
chastity  of  the  female  sex  has  not  been  proof  against  the 
temptations  offered  to  their  vanity  by  the  introduction  of 
European  finery.  But  these  things  were  to  have  been  ex- 
pected, for  civilization  has  its  vices  as  well  as  its  virtues; 
and  we  need  not  despair,  when  we  see  wise  enactments  en- 
forced, instead  of  ancient  laws  and  customs,  a  written  con- 
stitution adopted,  and  order  steadily  rising  out  of  chaos  and 
confusion.  Though  the  morais  described  by  Cook,  within 
whose  sacred  inclosures  human  sacrifices  were  offered  up,  are 
still  visible,  they  are  pointed  out  by  the  natives  only  as  relics 
of  a  by-gone  age. 

The  inhabitants  may  be  said  to  be  constitutionally  indolent. 
The  influence  of  the  climate  is  decidedly  enervating,  although, 
owing  to  their  small  extent,  the  islands  have  the  temperature 
of  the  ocean,  and,  on  the  west,  are  favored  by  the  prevailing 

Its  members  were  not  prohibited  from  marrying,  but  if  they  had  children,  they 
were  obliged  to  put  them  to  death.  It  is  computed  by  the  missionaries,  that  at 
least  two  thirds  of  the  children  born  were  murdered ;  but  though  the  number 
was  undoubtedly  large,  the  correctness  of  this  estimate  is  doubted,  simply,  perhaps, 
for  the  reason,  that  it  seems  too  revolting  for  belief.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
the  fact,  that  the  islands  are  far  less  populous  now  than  they  were  at  the  period 
of  their  discovery,  may  be  attributed  to  the  prevalence  of  infanticide,  and  the 
Woody  and  desolating  wars. 


176  CHARACTER    OF    THE    PEOPLE.  [1839 

winds.  The  heat  is  not  often  really  oppressive,  as  there  is  a 
constant  succession  of  light  sea  and  land  breezes,  but  it  soon 
produces,  if  one  is  disposed  to  yield  to  its  seductions,  a  soft 
dreamy  languor  and  lassitude  that  cannot  easily  be  resisted 
A  considerable  variety  of  character  is  presented  here.  Gen- 
erally, the  people  are  light-hearted,  merry,  frank,  honest  and 
well-behaved,  kind  and  affable  in  disposition.  Exceptions 
are  not  uncommon.  Some  are  deceitful  and  thievish,  and 
addicted  to  the  use  of  ardent  spirits,  though  drunkenness 
and  rioting  are  not  common  save  when  provoked  or  incited 
by  the  whites.  Chastity  is  not  the  chief  virtue  of  the  female 
sex,  but  licentiousness  is  not  near  as  prevalent  as  in  former 
years. 

All  are  excitable,  fond  of  music,  dancing,  social  enjoyments 
and  amusements,  of  which  the  missionaries,  perhaps  un- 
wisely, have  endeavored,  in  some  respects,  to  deprive  them. 
Their  fondness  for  music  is  natural,  and  they  frequently  as- 
semble in  parties  to  sing  in  the  open  air  in  the  evening. 
Their  voices  have  a  slight  nasal  twang,  but  chord  unusually 
in  harmony.  They  will  quickly  imitate  a  new  tune,  and 
readily  adapt  symphonious  parts  to  it.  •  The  native  music  is 
now  rarely  heard,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  songs 
which  they  have  learned  from  the  sailors,  and  the  familiar 
tunes  of  "  God  save  the  King,"  "  Cambridge,"  and  "  Old 
Hundred." 

They  are  attentive  at  worship — the  elderly  people  particu- 
larly so — and  pay  due  respect  to  the  authority  of  the  law. 
Of  pride  they  have  not  much  to  boast ;  and  the  highest  min- 
isters of  state,  and  the  officers  of  the  queen's  body-guard, 
may  often  be  seen  swimming  out  to  a  vessel  newly  arrived, 
with  nothing  on  but  the  maro,  to  solicit  the  honor  of  washing 
clothes.  From  the  ease  of  procuring  food,  clothing,  and  lodg- 
ings, they  are  as  improvident  as  they  are  indolent,  though 
there  are  many  who  keep  more  than  one  eye  on  the  main 
chance.  Both  men  and  women  arrive  at  maturity  at  an 
early  age ;  the  latter  look  older  at  thirteen  than  American 
females  at  twenty-three.     Their  mode  of  salutation  is  very 


1839.]  PERSONAL    APPEARANCE — LANGUAGE.  177 

friendly ;  the  parties  shake  hands,  as  with  us,  and  say  "  la 
ora  na  oe/" — "  peace  be  with  you  !" 

Scrofulous  complaints,  which  are  attributed  to  drinking 
the  water  of  the  rills  descending  from  the  mountains,  are 
quite  prevalent.  Syphilitic  diseases,  and  elephantiasis,  are 
also  common.  Intoxication  often  produces,  or  aggravates, 
many  of  the  prevailing  complaints,  and  the  inhabitants  suffer 
a  great  deal  for  the  want  of  suitable  medical  attendance. 

They  are  of  good  stature,  tall  and  well-made.  Their  com- 
plexions are  a  light  olive,  or  reddish  brown.  They  have 
regular,  open,  and  prepossessing  features,  with  a  facial  angle 
as  perpendicular  as  in  the  European  head ;  full,  jet-black, 
and  brilliant  eyes — those  of  the  women  "half  languor  and 
half  fire ;"  finely-arched  eye-brows ;  straight  or  aquiline 
noses  ;  well-formed  mouths  ;  coarse,  but  not  wiry  hair,  either 
black  or  brown.  They  are  lithe  and  supple  of  limb,  but  not 
inclined  to  exertion.  There  are  few  very  ugly  women  ;  most 
of  them  are  good-looking,  and  some  are  really  handsome,  with 
their  long  dark  tresses  hanging  gracefully  over  their  shoul- 
ders, and  interwoven  with  roses  and  jasmine  blossoms. 

Tattooing  is  not  practiced  as  much  now  as  formerly.  At- 
tempts were  made  a  few  years  ago  to  abolish  it  in  Tahiti, 
but  they  were  not  entirely  successful.  It  is  often  performed 
at  the  age  of  eight  or  ten.  A  great  deal  of  taste  is  displayed 
in  this  barbarous  custom  of  deforming  the  person.  The 
bodies  of  those  who  have  been  tattooed  are  sometimes  com- 
pletely covered  over  with  beautiful  figures  exhibiting  every 
variety  of  curve — with  animals,  flowers,  and  the  sprigs  and 
branches  of  trees. 

There  is  a  close  analogy  between  the  dialects  spoken  hero 
and  those  observed  in  other  parts  of  Polynesia.  The  lan- 
guage is  similar  to  the  Hawaiian,  and  many  words  are  pre- 
cisely the  same,  though  the  two  groups  are  twenty-three 
hundred  miles  apart.  Some  words  resemble  the  Malay, 
some  the  Indian,  and  some  every  language  spoken  on  the 
shores  of  the  two  great  continents  from  which  these  islands 
were,  directly  or  indirectly,  peopled.     The  inhabitants  of  the 

8* 


178  dress.  [1839. 

Sandwich,  Marquesas,  and  Society  Islands,  communicate 
with  each  other  without  difficulty,  after  a  few  days'  practice, 
and  the  Tahitian  and  New  Zealander  readily  understand 
each  other.* 

A  translation  of  the  scriptures  into  the  Tahitian  tongue 
has  been  made  by  the  missionaries,  and  printed  at  Eimeo. 
Other  books,  too,  have  been  published,  and  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation is  progressing,  more  slowly  than  might  be  desired,  but 
still  progressing.  The  schools  are  tolerably  well  attended; 
more  pains  are  taken  to  instruct  the  rising  generation ;  and 
a  greater  degree  of  interest  in  their  improvement  has  recently 
been  manifested. 

(6.)  So  many  new  fashions  and  customs  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Europeans,  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  consti- 
tutes the  national  dress.  The  queen  usually  appears  in  pub- 
lic, in  a  dress  of  satin  or  figured  silk,  made  after  the  European 
style,  with  slippers  and  gloves  of  corresponding  color,  a  whito 
satin  hat,  open  and  flattened  on  the  upper  rim,  and  sur- 
mounted with  ostrich  feathers.  So  fastidious  is  she,  that  she 
will  not  appear  at  church  in  the  afternoon,  in  the  same  dress 
she  wore  in  the  morning ;  and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  others 
follow  her  example.  The  king-consort  displays  himself  in  a 
brilliant  crimson  uniform,  decorated  with  gold  epaulettes,  a 
sword,  and  a  chapeau  ornamented  with  the  plumes  of  the 
ostrich.  The  princesses  wear  white  frocks,  shoes  and  stock- 
ings, and  flaring  chip,  or  straw  bonnets,  which  last  are  all 
the  rage  in  Tahiti.  The  chiefs  and  higher  dignitaries  also 
appear  in  the  European  dress,  on  all  public  occasions,  though 
their  coats  and  trowsers  are  of  all  colors  and  fashions, — the 
half  worn  costume  of  the  sailor  generally  having  the  pref- 
erence. 

The  ordinary  costume  of  the  natives  consists  of  a  kind  of 
mantle  covering  the  upper  part  of  the  person,  and  reaching 
down  to  the  pareu.  The  latter  is  about  two  yards  long,  is 
wound  around  the  waist,  and  extends  just  below  the  knees. 
Some  of  the  men  have  parens  made  of  blue  cotton  cloth,  and 

*  Cook's  Voyages,  Vol.  I,  book  i,  chap.  8 ;  Moerenhout,  Vol.  I,  p.  395,  et  seq. 


1839.]  customs.  179 

red  check,  or  calico  shirts,  of  gaudy  colors ;  others  wear  duck 
trowsers  and  sailors'  round-jackets,  and  use  the  pareu  as  a 
mantle.  A  full  loose  dress,  resembling  a  night  gown,  but- 
toned at  the  wrists,  but  not  confined  at  the  neck  or  waist,  is 
worn  by  the  better  class  of  females,  but  those  who  are  un- 
able to  indulge  in  this  luxury  appear  in  the  pareu  alone, 
which  merely  conceals  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  leaves 
the  bosom  and  shoulders  bare.  Shoes  are  rarely  seen,  and 
stockings  may  be  classed  among  the  prerogatives  of  royalty. 
Straw  hats  are  worn  by  both  sexes,  though  it  is  more  com- 
mon to  go  bareheaded ;  and  black  felt  hats,  some  high  and 
some  low  crowned,  some  with  broad  and  some  with  narrow 
brims,  are  possessed  by  a  very  few,  whom  their  countrymen 
esteem  as  fortune's  especial  favorites. 

Naked  Tahitians,  with  the  maro  only,  are  scarcely  ever 
seen.  Clothing  of  some  kind  or  other  is  deemed  essential,  no 
matter  how  odd  or  fantastical  it  may  be. 

Formerly,  tapa  was  the  principal  article  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing,  but  cotton  cloths  and  calicoes  are  now 
much  more  common  at  Tahiti  and  Eimeo.  The  men  appear 
singular  enough  in  their  calico  parens,  and  a  stranger  coming 
among  them,  ignorant  of  their  manners  and  customs,  would 
be  very  apt  to  suppose  he  had  introduced  himself  into  one  of 
the  most  approved  gyneocracies  of  the  modern  school  of  philos- 
ophers. On  the  other  islands,  the  original  dress  of  the  natives 
is  the  most  frequently  worn. 

A  love  of  flowers  is  characteristic  of  the  Tahitian  female, 
and  her  sisters  on  the  other  islands  of  the  group,  though  far 
less  civilized,  are  not  a  whit  behind  her  in  this  womanly  trait. 
They  are  fond  of  wearing  flowers  stuck  in  their  hair,  and 
through  the  lobes  of  their  ears.  Sometimes  they  decorate 
their  heads  with  wreaths  of  the  most  fragrant  and  beautiful 
flowers,  and  they  have  also  an  ornament  called  a  hau,  which 
consists  of  a  rim  of  braided  pandanus  leaves,  projecting  on 
either  side  of  the  head  like  a  chapeau. 

Though  the  inhabitants  of  the  Society  Islands  are  not  over- 
much attached  to  labor,  contenting  themselves,  in  the  main, 


180  PRODUCTIONS.  [1839. 

with  the  cultivation  of  a  few  bananas,  and  a  small  patch  of 
yams  and  sweet  potatoes,  they  are  always  ready  for  any  kind 
of  amusement.  Fishing  is  one  of  their  chief  sports,  and  every 
fine  night  the  romantic  scenery  of  the  numerous  bays  and 
inlets  is  illuminated  by  the  glare  of  their  torches,  and  the 
coral  rocks  echo  back  their  cheery  songs  and  joyous  shouts. 
They  fish  mostly  with  the  spear,  in  the  use  of  which  they 
are  very  expert. 

(7.)  There  are  few  trees  or  plants  usually  found  in  the 
tropics,  which  are  not  indigenous  to,  or  have  not  been  accli- 
mated in,  this  group.  The  soil  made  by  the  decomposing 
rocks  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  is  of  great  fertility,  yet 
agriculture  is  in  a  languishing  state  ;  and  there  are  acres  of 
the  most  fruitful  ground,  to  which,  were  it  not  for  the  spon- 
taneous growth  of  its  products,  the  expressive  phrase  of  part 
du  diable,  used  in  designating  the  fallow  corners  of  the 
ploughed  fields  of  Finisterre,  might  well  be  applied.  There 
is,  indeed,  no  very  powerful  inducement  to  labor,  where  the 
means  of  subsistence  are  so  easily  obtained. 

On  the  hills  and  uplands  there  are  forests  of  stately  trees, 
and  the  mountain  sides  are  variegated  with  shrubbery,  and 
richly  embroidered  with  the  parasitic  plants  that  grow  in 
every  rift  and  cranny.  Ornamental  shrubs  and  aromatic 
plants  are  common.  Yellow,  orange,  red,  and  party-colored 
acacias,  enliven  the  scene  with  their  gorgeous  dyes.  The 
laughing  sunlight  rests  lovingly  on  the  rich  yellow  fruit  of 
the  lime  and  orange,  and  the  soft  breezes  of  the  ocean  delight 
to  linger  amid  the  bright  green  foliage  of  the  banana,  the 
broad  leaves  of  the  bread-fruit,  and  the  waving  tufts  of  the 
cocoa. 

Of  the  apapa  and  faifai — the  latter  the  more  valuable  of 
the  two — the  canoes  of  the  natives  are  made  ;  and  the  tam- 
anu  and  hibiscus  of  the  plains,  are  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
and  also  for  making  furniture.  The  mape  (inocarpus  edulis) 
furnishes  excellent  timber  for  small  vessels,  but  only  a  lim- 
ited supply  can  be  obtained.  The  wood  of  the  bread-fruit 
tree  is  used  in  various  ways,  in  house  and  ship  building. 


1839.]  fruits.  181 

Besides  the  fruits  which  have  been  mentioned — the  cocoa, 
bread-fruit,  orange,  lime,  banana,  yam,  and  sweet  potato — 
pine-apples,  shaddocks,  citrons,  plantains,  papayas,  lemons, 
vi-apples,  taro,  figs,  guavas,  and  cape  mulberries,  are  found 
in  great  abundance.  Pumpkins,  melons,  turnips,  onions, 
beans  and  cabbages,  would  flourish  with  proper  care  and  til- 
lage, but  the  ground  is  scarcely  ever  turned  up,  except  with 
an  iron-shod  stick,  and  little  can  be  expected  from  such 
husbandry.  From  the  ti-root  {dracona  terminalis)  an  infe- 
rior spirit,  called  ava,  is  made  ;  this  was  once  drank  by  all 
classes, to  excess,  but  the  introduction  of  foreign  spirits  has 
banished  it  from  use,  unless  it  be  among  the  poorer  people. 
A  native  chestnut,  the  rata,  (tuscarpus  edulis,)  has  a  sweet 
nut,  and  is  an  agreeable  substitute  for  the  bread-fruit.  On 
the  south  side  of  Tahiti,  the  grape  thrives  luxuriantly ;  the 
coffee  shrub  has  been  tried  and  succeeds  well ;  tobacco  is 
grown  in  small  quantities  ;  and  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  in- 
digo, may  be  raised  with  little  effort.  The  Otaheitan  cane 
produces  four  crops,  while  the  common  variety,  requiring  a 
better  soil,  yields  only  three  ;  its  cultivation  is  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy, but  there  are  a  number  of  fine  plantations  at  Tahiti 
and  Eimeo,  which  promise  in  the  future  to  be  highly  pro- 
ductive.* The  tuitui  tree,  the  nut  of  which  is  used  in  tattoo- 
ing, is  a  native  of  the  group  ;  so  is,  also,  the  tacca,  from 
which  arrow-root  is  prepared. 

The  pine-apples  raised  here  are  excellent,  and  the  oranges 
delicious.  The  latter  are  sold  at  fifty  cents  per  hundred ; 
they  are  often  prepared  so  as  to  keep  for  a  long  time,  by 
selecting  them  with  care,  and  drying  them  in  the  sun,  dur- 
ing which  process  the  moisture  of  the  rind  evaporates,  but 
the  juice  of  the  pulp  is  not  impaired.  Lemons  are  unusually 
large,  and  limes  are  so  abundant  that  it  is  quite  a  traffic  to 
supply  ships  with  the  juice,  prepared  by  fermenting  the  fruit 
with  chalk,  which  is  highly  valued  for  its  anti-scorbutic 
properties.  Citrons  are  plenty,  but  are  hardly  equal  to  those 
obtained  in  the  East  Indies.      The  vi-apple  resembles  the 

*  The  cane  is  often  seen  growing  wild,  in  tufts,  in  the  interior  of  Tahiti. 


182  GUAVA  AND  COCOA.  [1839. 

egg  plum,  and  is  the  product  of  a  rough  tree  like  the  oak. 
Of  the  banana  and  plantain  there  are  numerous  varieties  ; 
they  are  sometimes  preserved  by  cutting  them  in  slices,  and 
exposing  them  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  by  which  they  are 
dried,  and  at  the  same  time  covered  with  a  rich  saccharine 
matter. 

A  species  of  banana,  called  fei,  or  fayee,  by  the  natives,  is 
found  wild  on  the  mountains  and  highlands.  Unlike  the  other 
varieties,  which  it  resembles  in  shape,  its  spikes  of  fruit  rise 
up  from  the  stalks  instead  of  depending  down.  Internally, 
the  fruit  is  of  a  bright  chrome  yellow  ;  it  has  no  seeds,  and 
is  covered  with  a  rind  of  a  brilliant  red  tint.  In  taste  it  re- 
sembles the  parsnep.  There  are  two  kinds  of  the  taro,  one 
of  which  is  the  denizen  of  wet,  marshy  places,  and  the  other 
of  higher  and  dryer  ground.  The  guava  is  wonderfully  pro- 
lific, and  threatens  eventually  to  overrun  the  islands,  if  se- 
rious attempts  are  not  made  to  exterminate  it,  or  confine  it 
in  proper  limits.  It  here  attains  the  height  of  from  six  to 
twelve  feet;  its  fruit  is  like  that  of  the  quince  bush  in 
shape  and  size,  pulpy  and  rich  in  flavor  like  the  strawberry, 
of  a  deep  crimson  color  in  the  interior,  and  covered  with  a 
yellow  skin  shaded  with  a  tinge  of  carmine.  So  abundant  is 
this  fruit,  that  the  swine  are  allowed  to  go  at  large,  in  order 
that  they  may  feed  upon  it. 

The  natives  pluck  the  cocoa  when  it  is  still  quite  green, 
and  do  not  wait  for 

"  Th'  imbrowning  of  the  fruit,  that  tells 
How  rich  within  the  soul  of  sweetness  dwells." 

When  in  this  unripe  state,  the  kernel  is  pulpy  and  the  shell 
soft ;  it  can  then  be  eaten  with  a  spoon,  and,  if  a  little 
Madeira  wine  and  lime  juice  be  added,  it  is  really  excellent. 
At  this  time  the  nut  contains  from  a  pint  to  a  quart  of  a 
slightly  acidulous,  but  fine  beverage.  The  mode  of  obtain- 
ing the  cocoas  is  peculiar.  A  boy  with  a  long  line  in  his 
hand,  and  his  feet  fettered  by  a  short  rope  so  that  they  are 
from  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart,  ascends  the  tree  by  pressing 
his  feet  against  the  shaggy  trunk,  and  clasping  it  with  his 


1839.]  THE    BREAD-FRUIT.  183 

arms.  He  vaults  up  with  astonishing  rapidity — his  body- 
swinging  clear  from  the  tree  at  every  spring — and  lowers 
down  the  nuts  with  the  long  rope.  The  cocoas  are  so  pro- 
ductive that  the  nuts  are  often  sold  at  one  dollar  per  hundred. 

Valuable  and  important  as  are  the  productions  which  have 
been  described,  the  bread-fruit,  after  all,  is  the  vegetable 
Corypheus  of  the  Society  Islands.  The  tree  grows  to  the 
size  of  a  middling  oak,  is  umbrageous,  and  has  its  broad 
leaves  deeply  notched,  like  those  of  the  fig.  The  trunk  rises 
to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  without  a  branch,  and  has 
a  rough  light-colored  bark.  The  foliage  is  a  dark  green,  rich 
and  glossy.  Its  fruit  is  circular  or  oval,  from  eight  to  nine 
inches  long,  and  averaging  about  six  inches  in  diameter  ;  it 
is  covered  with  hexagonal  warts,  and  grows  in  clusters  of 
five  or  six ;  at  first  it  is  of  a  pea-green  color,  subsequently 
changing  to  brown,  and,  when  fully  ripe,  assuming  a  yellow- 
ish tinge.  The  pulp  is  white  and  soft,  partly  farinaceous  and 
partly  fibrous,  and  in  its  ripe  state  is  yellow  and  juicy.  In- 
side of  the  pulp  there  is  a  hard  core  extending  from  the  stalk 
to  the  crown,  about  which  there  are  a  few  imperfect  seeds. 
The  fruit  is  gathered  before  it  is  entirely  ripe,  for  it  soon  de- 
cays ;  it  continues  in  season  above  eight  months  in  the  year, 
and  is  so  prolific  that  two  or  three  trees  will  yield  a  sufficiency 
for  the  yearly  support  of  one  person.* 

This  delightful  esculent  is  boiled  or  baked,  or  roasted  under 
ground,  after  the  true  native  fashion.  The  second  rind  is 
scraped  off,  and  the  interior  is  eaten  in  the  same  manner  as 
bread.  It  has  a  pure  white,  mealy  appearance,  resembling 
potatoes,  and  an  agreeable  sweet  taste,  between  that  of  wheat 


*  There  are,  in  fact,  two  species  of  bread-fruit — the  artocarpus  integrifolia, 
and  the  artocarpus  incisa.  The  leaves  of  the  former  are  not  sinuated  ;  it  grows 
chiefly  on  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  is  called  jaca  by  the  inhabitants  ;  the  fruit 
is  very  large,  often  exceeding  thirty  pounds  in  weight.  The  latter  is  the  proper 
bread-fruit  of  the  South  Sea,  originally  discovered  in  the  Ladrones.  Through 
the  exertions  of  Captain  Bligh,— who  had  just  left  Tahiti,  while  on  an  errand 
of  this  kind,  when  the  crew  of  the  Bounty  mutinied, — and  at  the  expense  of 
the  English  government,  plants  of  the  bread-fruit  were  introduced  into  the  West 
Indies.    It  is  easily  cultivated  there,  but  does  not  excel  the  banana. 


184  BIRDS    AND   ANIMALS.  [1839. 

bread  and  roasted  chestnuts.  Sometimes  it  is  beaten  up  with 
cocoa-nut  and  milk.  It  is  highly  nutritive,  but  must  be 
eaten  new,  as  it  becomes  harsh  and  unpalatable  in  twenty- 
four  hours  after  being  cooked.  As  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
this  fruit  in  a  crude  state,  it  is  often  buried  in  pits,  when  it 
ferments,  and  forms  a  substance  called  mahi,  that  may  be 
preserved  for  a  long  time,  and  is  resorted  to  out  of  the  bearing 
season. 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  custom  of  taboo,  it  is  usual  for 
the  owner  of  a  private  grove,  if  he  wishes  to  protect  it  from 
strangers,  to  tie  girdles  of  leaves  about  the  trees.  This  sig- 
nal is  always  respected,  and  the  most  tempting  fruits  remain 
unmolested,  without  any  other  guard  or  protection.  The 
people  of  other  countries,  who  boast  of  their  intellectual  ad- 
vancement, and  moral  perfectness,  might  well  profit  by  this 
example. 

Having  such  an  abundance,  and  so  great  a  variety,  of  the 
finest  and  most  luscious  fruits,  the  people  of  these  islands  are 
bounteously  provided  for  in  respect  to  food.  They  live  prin- 
cipally on  vegetables ;  though  pigs,  fowls,  and  fish,  are  con- 
siderably eaten.  Bread-fruit,  taro,  and  pig,  is  the  standing 
dish.  All  are  fond  of  po'e,  particularly  the  children.  They 
prepare  a  delicious  hotchpot,  of  taro,  cocoa-nut,  and  bread- 
fruit, called  po'e-poe,  and  another,  equally  good,  called  poe- 
maia,  of  feis,  taro,  bread-fruit,  and  cocoa-nut.  They  eat  no 
salt,  but,  instead  thereof,  use  a  sop,  or  compound,  made  of 
sea- water,  cocoa-nut  milk,  and  the  nut  of  the  ti ;  taro  or 
bread-fruit  is  dipped  in  this,  and  sucked,  before  being  eaten. 

(8.)  The  albatross,  tropic  bird,  petrel,  heron,  wild  duck, 
woodpecker,  and  turtle  dove,  are  the  principal  birds  found  in 
the  islands.  Pigeons  and  swallows  are  common,  as  is,  also, 
the  trichoclossus,  a  species  of  parroquet.  Horses,  asses,  cat- 
tle, hogs,  goats  and  sheep,  have  been  introduced,  and  thrive 
well.  The  horses  are  quite  numerous  ;  they  are  never  shod, 
as  they  are  used  exclusively  for  the  saddle.  The  cattle  roam 
at  pleasure  through  the  fine  pasture  grounds,  and  the  leaves 
of  the    bread-fruit  form  excellent   fodder  for  them.      Lame 


1839.]  DWELLINGS.  185 

numbers  of  hogs  are  reared,  and  they  are  fast  supplanting 
the  wild  ones,  belonging  to  an  entirely  distinct  breed,  that 
once  abounded  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Tahiti  and 
Eimeo.  Dogs  and  cats  are  domesticated ;  and  rats,  mus- 
quitoes,  and  horse-flies,  are  plenty  enough  to  be  regarded  as 
great  pests. 

Fish  are  abundant.  The  best  of  them  are  the  albicore, 
bonito,  ray  and  shark,  all  of  which  are  eaten.  Fine  rock  fish 
are  caught  in  the  small  streams,  and  salmon  and  eels  in  the 
rivers.  As  has  been  stated,  fishing  is  a  favorite  employment 
of  the  natives.  Besides  the  spear,  they  use  nets  made  of  the 
twisted  bark  of  the  hibiscus.  They  are  likewise  fond  of  tak- 
ing the  molluscous  crabs  and  turtles,  numbers  of  which  are 
obtained  on  the  coral  rocks  and  reefs. 

(9.)  The  queen's  residence  at  Papieti  is  the  most  conspic- 
uous house  there.  It  is  one  story  in  height,  and  has  a 
peaked  roof  of  thatch,  and  a  wide  piazza  extending  com- 
pletely across  the  front.  The  church  at  the  same  place  is  a 
large  and  convenient  edifice ;  the  rafters  and  frame  work  sup- 
porting the  roof  are  concealed,  in  part,  by  ornamental  mat- 
ting reaching  up  ten  or  fifteen  feet  from  the  wall.  The  resi- 
dences of  the  foreigners  are  light  wooden  structures,  painted 
white,  with  green  blinds  and  thatched  roofs.  The  "  palace," 
and  some  few  other  houses,  have  glazed  windows.  The  raft- 
ers are  generally  left  uncovered,  on  the  inner  side.  Some 
dwellings  are  divided  off  into  separate  rooms,  by  board  parti- 
tions, though,  in  general,  there  is  but  a  single  room. 

Most  of  the  timber  used  in  house-building,  and  in  making 
the  heavier  articles  of  furniture,  is  obtained  from  the  bread- 
fruit ;  but  the  tamanu  (calophyllum)  is  sometimes  employed 
as  a  substitute.  The  wood  of  the  former  tree  is  of  the  color 
of  mahogany,  and  is  exceedingly  durable :  it  is  hewn  into 
posts,  or  sawed  into  boards,  as  may  be  required. 

The  natives,  ordinarily,  build  their  habitations,  however, 
very  differently  from  the  more  modern  style  just  represented. 
They  are  a  single  story  high,  and  of  an  oblong  shape,  resem- 
bling more  closely,  at  a  distance,  a  Dutch  hay -stack,  than 


186  commeri  e.  [1839. 

anything  beside.  They  consist  of  posts  or  stakes,  at  the 
corners,  and  at  intervals  between  them,  driven  firmly  into 
the  ground.  The  walls  are  built  of  bamboo  interlaced,  or  of 
strips  of  hibiscus.  Where  there  are  floors,  they  are  made  of 
planks  from  the  bread-fruit.  There  is  not  often  more  than 
one  apartment ;  but,  occasionally,  a  separate  shed  is  employed 
for  cooking.  Frequently  a  part  of  the  hut  is  railed  off,  for 
the  use  of  a  sow  and  her  litter. 

Some  of  the  houses,  on  Tahiti  and  Eimeo,  have  neat  in- 
closed gardens  for  vegetables  and  flowers.  The  queen's 
palace  is  surrounded  by  a  fine  lawn  well  stocked  with  shade 
and  fruit  trees. 

Of  furniture  there  is  but  little.  The  principal  articles  are 
a  few  mats  and  low  wooden  stools ;  a  trough  and  stone  for 
preparing  po'e  ;  and  a  number  of  cups  and  eating  vessels  made 
of  cocoa-nut  shells.  A  log  of  wood  is  used  for  a  pillow,  and 
a  mat  for  a  bed ;  in  the  better  class  of  dwellings,  they  have 
pillows  stuffed  with  cotton  or  aromatic  herbs.  An  old  mus- 
ket and  several  fishing  spears,  extended  on  rude  hooks,  and 
some  bunches  of  fruit  depending  from  the  rafters,  are  the 
customary  ornaments  witnessed  in  the  native  houses. 

(10.)  Though  they  make  no  long  voyages,  the  Society 
Islanders  are  essentially  a  maritime  people.  Their  commer- 
cial resources  are  limited,  however ;  and  most  of  their  trade, 
which  is  carried  on  exclusively  by  foreigners,  principally 
French  and  English,  is  with  New  South  Wales,  whose  ports 
are  opened  to  their  vessels  on  the  same  footing  as  the  English. 
They  export  thither,  sugar,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  arrow-root,  to 
an  amount  exceeding  thirty-five  thousand  dollars  annually, 
and  receive  in  return,  hardware,  calicoes,  and  other  manu- 
factured goods.  In  the  course  of  a  year,  perhaps  one  hun- 
dred whalers  visit  the  islands  to  barter,  whose  trade  amounts 
to  nearly  fifty  dollars  for  each  vessel.  The  American  prop- 
erty annually  visiting  the  group  is  estimated  to  be  worth  at 
least  five  million  dollars.  About  ten  thousand  dollars'  worth 
of  pearls  are  annually  obtained  from  the  Paumotu  Group, 
most  of  which  are  sent  to  France. 


1839.]  VESSELS   AND   CANOES.  187 

Double  canoes  are  the  only  large  vessels  belonging  to  the 
natives.  Recently,  small  schooners  of  one  hundred  tons  bur- 
den have  been  built  at  Tahiti,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Americans,  which  are  employed  in  the  trade  to  New  South 
Wales.  The  large  timbers  of  the  schooners  are  made  of 
mape,  and  the  smaller  ones  of  hibiscus.  The  native  canoes 
are  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  either  double  or  single,  and 
are  decidedly  superior  to  those  found  elsewhere  in  the  Pacific. 
Some  of  them  are  seventy  feet  long  and  but  two  feet  wide, 
with  high  stems  and  sterns,  ornamented  with  grotesque 
carved  work.  The  war  canoes  are  from  forty  to  sixty  feet 
long,  well-modelled  and  firmly  built,  and  fancifully  ornamented 
with  carving,  and  decorated  with  gay  flags  and  streamers. 
The  canoes  built  for  trading  with  vessels  anchored  in  the 
harbors,  or  for  fishing  on  the  reefs,  are  always  single,  and 
rarely  hold  more  than  two  persons.  Mape  and  hibiscus  fur- 
nish the  principal  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  canoes. 
The  cordage  is  made  of  grape-vines,  or  the  fibres  of  the  bread- 
fruit. The  sails,  usually  of  a  half  oval  shape,  are  made  of 
matting  of  pandanus  leaves ;  they  are  very  large,  and  one 
would  suppose  that  the  canoes  might  be  easily  upset  in  a 
squall,  but  the  native  sailors  are  expert  and  skilful,  and,  at 
such  times,  they  get  far  out  on  the  outriggers,  and  thus  keep 
their  frail  barks  in  an  upright  position,  while  they  dash  for- 
ward with  the  utmost  velocity. 

There  is  little  or  no  internal  traffic.  Almost  every  one 
raises  what  food  he  needs  for  himself  and  family,  and  the 
poorer  class  of  natives  manufacture  their  own  clothing,  from 
that  never-failing  source  of  supply,  the  bread-fruit  tree.  Ve- 
hicles for  carrying  burdens  are  not  much  used,  although  there 
is  a  fine  road,  called  the  Broom  Road,  extending  completely 
around  Tahiti  near  the  beach,  and  finely  arched  with  trees, 
among  them  many  cocoas,  termed  the  queen's,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  free  to  strangers  and  travellers.  The  mode  of  car- 
rying articles,  in  general  use,  is  the  same  with  that  observed 
in  the  East  Indies,  and  throughout  the  islands  of  the  Pacific : 
— a  stout  stick,  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  is  extended  hori- 


183  MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS.  [1839 

zontalljr  over  the  shoulder,  and  a  portion  of  the  burden  at- 
tached to  either  end. 

Sugar,  cocoa-nut  oil  and  arrow-root,  are  the  chief  articles 
of  commerce,  which  require  to  be  manufactured  before  being 
fit  for  market.  Much  larger  quantities  of  these  might  be 
produced,  were  the  natives  more  industrious.  The  annual 
product  of  sugar,  probably  the  most  important  of  all,  is 
steadily  increasing.  Nearly  two  hundred  tons  are  raised  on 
the  plantations  of  Tahiti,  and  half  that  quantity  on  those  of 
Eimeo,  in  the  space  of  a  year.  One  hundred  tons  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil  were  once  annually  exported,  but,  in  consequence  of 
some  unwise  restrictive  measures  of  the  government,  there  is 
much  less  obtained.  The  oil  is  extracted  in  a  very  simple 
manner  : — the  kernel  is  chopped  up  in  fine  pieces,  and  placed 
in  a  trough,  so  inclined,  that  when  the  oil  is  expelled  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun  it  will  trickle  down  into  a  reservoir  placed 
beneath ;  it  is  preserved  in  pieces  of  bamboo  cut  off  at  the 
joints,  and  is  used  for  lubricating  machinery  and  making 
soap,  and,  when  perfumed,  is  burnt  in  lamps.  The  value  of 
the  arrow-root  annually  prepared,  is  about  five  thousand 
dollars.  As  in  other  countries,  the  root  is  washed  and  beaten 
into  a  pulp,  and  the  fecula  separated  from  the  fibrous  matter 
by  elutriation  through  sieves. 

Attempts  have  been  made  by  the  missionaries  to  introduce 
cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  at  Tahiti,  but  with  little  or  no 
success ;  and  a  carpet  factory  established  at  Eimeo,  has 
failed.  Yet  the  natives  are  not  deficient  in  mechanical  in- 
genuity. In  former  times,  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  tapa 
was  esteemed  an  important  female  accomplishment,  and,  as 
such,  highly  prized.  All  the  labor  in  preparing  this  native 
cloth  is  performed  by  women,  and  those  who  continue  to 
make  it  are  as  proud  of  their  stores,  as  were  our  Dutch 
grandmothers  of  their  rolls  of  kersey  and  heaps  of  linen. 
The  tapa  is  made  of  the  inner  fibres  of  the  bark  from  the 
branches  of  the  bread-fruit  tree.  These  fibres  are  macerated, 
and  then  beaten  on  a  long  spring-board,  slightly  convex,  with 
a  small  grooved  mallet,  under  which  process,  while  in  a  moist 


1839.]  tapa.  189 

state,  they  become  interlaced  with  each  other,  and  assume 
the  appearance  of  woven  cloth.  Bales  of  it  are  sometimes 
made,  two  hundred  yards  long,  and  four  yards  in  width.  Its 
color,  in  an  unbleached  state,  is  a  darkish  brown  ;  and  it  is 
customary  either  to  bleach  it,  or  to  color  it  with  vegetable 
dyes.  Since  the  introduction  of  European  cloth,  there  has 
been  a  great  deal  less  made,  especially  on  Tahiti  and  Eimeo, 
and  it  is  now  chiefly  worn  by  females,  children,  and  the 
poorer  classes 

(11.)  There  is  some  contrariety  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
general  influence  exerted  by  the  missionaries  in  the  Society 
Islands.  No  doubt,  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  is  very 
different  from  what  it  would  naturally  have  been,  had  they 
remained  enveloped  in  the  mists  and  darkness  of  heathenish 
superstition, — but  might  it  not  have  been  still  better  ?  The 
missionaries  were  unquestionably  right  in  theory,  yet  they 
lacked  practical  tact.  They  discouraged  the  fondness  for 
flowers  which  characterized  the  natives,  because  it  was  con- 
nected with  ancient  oustoms  and  a  dark  and  cruel  faith,  in- 
stead of  teaching  the  poor  benighted  pagan  to  love  them  bet- 
ter, from  a  higher  and  nobler  impulse — from  adoration  for 
their  Creator,  whose  matchless  handiwork  is  nowhere  more 
strikingly  or  beautifully  exhibited,  than  upon  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific.  They  endeavored  to  check,  or  prohibit  altogether, 
some  of  their  favorite  amusements — among  others,  those  of 
singing  and  dancing — forgetting,  meanwhile,  that  amuse- 
ments are  far  more  necessary  to  an  excitable  people,  though 
they  may  be  indolent  by  nature,  than  to  those  who  are  cold 
and  phlegmatio  in  disposition.  Though  he  failed  to  profit 
by  it  in  the  end,  Louis  Philippe  understood  better  the  char- 
acter of  his  subjects — of  course  more  refined  and  enlightened 
than  the  Society  Islanders,  but,  like  them,  volatile,  gay- 
hearted,  and  mercurial  in  temperament — when  he  enriched 
the  collections,  and  added  new  beauties,  to  the  noble  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  and  filled  the  lofty  halls  and  corridors,  the 
vaulted  chambers  and  saloons,  of  Versailles,  with  all  the 


190  INFLUENCE    OP    THE    MISSIONARIES.  [1839. 

glories  of  France.*  True,  the  one  labored  .to  establish  a 
temporal  power  on  a  firm  foundation,  while  the  others  were 
employed  on  a  divine  mission ;  but  the  laws  of  nature,  of 
man's  physical  constitution,  can  never  be  disregarded  with 
impunity.  As  the  love  of  flowers  might  have  been  made  to 
subserve  a  happy  purpose,  so  might  the  amusements  of  the 
natives,  by  rendering  them  harmless,  or  substituting  others 
in  their  stead,  if  that  were  impossible,  have  produced  a  hap- 
piness, and  contentedness  of  feeling,  under  the  influence  of 
which  they  would  have  been  less  likely  to  fall  into  the  vices, 
and  become  victims  to  the  temptations,  introduced,  or  placed 
before  them,  by  some  of  the  foreign  residents. 

The  traders  and  merchants  who  followed  the  missionaries, 
have  undoubtedly  done  much  to  counteract  their  efforts ;  but 
the  influence  exerted  by  their  own  children  has  been  equally 
pernicious,  and  the  establishment  of  a  separate  school  for 
them,  looks  so  much  like  exclusiveness,  like  an  aristocratic 
barrier,  that  its  tendency  cannot  be  otherwise  than  prejudi- 
cial. Until  quite  recently,  very  little  pains  have  been  taken 
to  instruct  the  natives  in  any  useful  arts,  or  to  present  in- 
ducements for  them  to  be  active  and  industrious.  Had  they 
been  taught  some  light  and  easy  employments,  particularly 
the  females,  and  been  allowed  to  indulge  their  native  tastes 
and  customs,  where  they  were  not  decidedly  immoral,  it  is 
but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  would  have  been  a  hap- 
pier, more  virtuous,  and  better  contented  people. 

*  "A  toutes  les  gloires  de  la  France,"  is  the  inscription  on  the  portico  of  the 
palace  of  Versailles. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

(1.)  Arrival  of  the  Squadron  at  Tahiti.  "Voyage  to  the  Samoan  Group. — (2.) 
Geographical  Description  of  the  Islands.  Geology.  Climate. — (3.)  Principal 
Towns  and  Harbors. — (4.)  Inhabitants.  Character  and  Appearance.  Dress. 
Manners  and  Customs. — (5.)  Government.  State  of  Society.  The  Mission- 
aries.— (6.)  Mode  of  building  Houses. — (7.)  Commerce.  Canoes  of  the 
Natives. — (8.)  Zoology. — (9.)  Soil.  Productions. — (10.)  Movements  of  the 
Squadron.     Departure  from  the  Group. 

(1.)  At  sunset  on  the  10th  of  September,  the  Vincennes 
anchored  in  Matavai  Bay,  where  she  found  the  Porpoise, — 
the  latter  having  arrived  in  Papieti  Harbor  the  day  previous. 
The  Peacock  arrived  on  the  12th,  and  the  Flying  Fish  on 
the  14th  instant.  Immediately  after  the  arrival  of  the  Squad- 
ron, the  instruments  were  landed,  and  observations  made, 
on  Point  Venus, — a  convenient  and  airy  house  having  been 
kindly  offered  for  this  purpose  by  Queen  Pomare.  While 
the  Americans  remained  at  the  island,  their  intercourse  with 
the  civil  authorities,  the  missionaries,  and  the  natives,  was 
of  the  most  friendly  character ;  they  experienced  the  most 
hospitable  and  generous  treatment  on  every  hand ;  and  dur- 
ing their  stay,  a  number  of  grievances  complained  of  by  the 
American  consul,  were  promptly  redressed,  through  the  in- 
tervention of  the  commander  of  the  expedition. 

All  the  harbors  of  Tahiti  and  Eimeo  were  carefully  sur- 
veyed, and  correct  charts  made,  by  one  or  other  of  the  vessels 
of  the  Squadron.  On  the  20th  of  September,  the  Vincennes 
put  to  sea  for  a  short  cruise  in  the  Paumotu  Group,  with 
instructions  to  join  the  flag  ship,  at  Rose  Island,  the  eastern- 
most of  the  Samoan,  or  Navigators'  Group,  between  the  1st 
and  5th  of  October.  The  Vincennes  moved  to  Papieti  Harbor 
on  the  22d  of  September,  and  was  joined,  on  the  24th  instant, 


192  THE    SAMOAN    GROUP.  [1839. 

by  the  other  vessels  belonging  to  the  Squadron.  On  the  25th, 
she  sailed  to  Eimeo,  and  on  the  29th  pursued  her  course  to 
the  west.  Passing  Bellinghausen's  Island  on  her  route, 
where  she  stopped  to  make  some  magnetic  experiments,  she 
hove  in  sight  of  Rose  Island,  on  the  7th  of  October,  two  days 
later  than  the  appointed  time,  where  she  found  the  Porpoise 
awaiting  her  arrival.  The  Flying  Fish  was  detained  at 
Papieti,  for  repairs,  till  the  10th  of  October — the  Peacock  re- 
maining to  bear  her  company — on  which  day  both  vessels 
sailed  for  the  place  of  rendezvous. 

(2.)  The  Samoan  Group— formerly  called  Navigators'  Is- 
lands— is  situated  between  latitude  13°  30'  and  14°  30'  S., 
and  longitude  168°  and  173°  W.  These  islands  were  dis- 
covered in  1768,  by  the  distinguished  French  navigator, 
Count  de  Bougainville,  who  gave  them  the  name  which  they 
have  heretofore  usually  borne.  There  are  eight  of  the  islands 
inhabited,  viz. — Manua,  Oloosinga,  Ofoo,  Tutuila,  Upolu, 
Manono,  Apolima,  and  Savaii — and  there  are  several  smaller 
and  uninhabited  islands,  among  which  is  Rose  Island,  a  low 
circular  coral  islet,  with  a  lagoon  in  the  centre,  nearly  inun- 
dated in  high  water,  and  covered  to  the  very  rim  with  tall  and 
graceful  pisonias.  The  other  small  islands  resemble  this  in 
general  formation  and  appearance,  and  are  mainly  situated 
within  the  shore  reefs  of  the  larger  islands. 

Manua  is  the  first  island  west  of  Rose  Island.  It  is  about 
sixteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  upwards  of  twenty-five 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  shores  are  high 
and  bold, — rising,  in  most  places,  precipitately,  to  the  height 
of  three  or  four  hundred  feet.  Above  this  the  ground  swells 
gracefully,  upward  and  inward,  till  it  attains  its  greatest  ele- 
vation, like  a  vast  dome  reared  above  some  mighty  citadel. 
It  is  well-wooded,  and  covered  with  rich  verdure  to  its  sum- 
mit. Four  miles  northwest  of  Manua.  is  Oloosinga,  which 
consists  of  a  narrow  ledge  of  rocks,  three  miles  long,  rising 
abruptly  from  the  water.  The  only  portion  of  it  that  is  pro- 
ductive, is  a  narrow  strip  running  lengthwise  of  the  island, 
and  overspread  with   the  most  luxuriant  vegetation.     Ofoo 


1839.]  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION.  193 

lies  west  of  Oloosinga,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  channel 
for  boats,  one  quarter  of  a  mile  in  width.  It  is  of  but  little 
importance,  and  contains  but  few  inhabitants,  most  of  them 
having  been  cut  off  during  the  bloody  wars  that  have  more 
than  decimated  the  population  of  the  islands.  * 

Fifteen  miles  west  of  Ofoo  and  Oloosinga,  from  which  it  is 
visible  in  fine  weather,  is  Tutuila,  the  most  central  island, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  group.  It  is  nearly 
fifty  miles  in  circumference  ;  its  shores  are  precipitous  ;  and 
it  has,  generally,  a  broken  and  rugged  appearance,  occasioned 
by  the  numerous  sharp  spurs  and  ridges  that  vary  its  surface, 
— though  its  scenery  is  highly  romantic,  and  its  unevenness 
is  more  than  half  concealed  by  the  dense  forests  of  cocoas  and 
bread-fruits,  whose  thickly-matted  foliage,  interlaced  with 
innumerable  vines  and  creepers,  covers  the  island  as  with  a 
carpet,  which,  when  disturbed  by  the  summer  wind,  rises 
and  falls,  in  wavy  undulations,  like  the  billows  of  the  ocean. 
The  highest  peak  on  Tutuila  is  Matafoa,  upwards  of  twenty- 
three  hundred  feet  above  the  ocean.  It  contains  a  large  pop- 
ulation, who  are  chiefly  congregated  in  the  valleys  and  plains 
sloping  down  to  the  sea.  Lofty  and  impassable  hills  separate 
the  island  into  two  parts,  the  only  communication  between 
which  is  by  the  sea  shore, — the  one,  on  the  northeast,  ex- 
ceedingly rough  and  uneven  ;  and  the  other,  on  the  south- 
west, lower,  more  level,  and  more  easy  of  cultivation. — 
Tutuila  was  visited  by  the  unfortunate  La  Perouse,  in  De- 
cember, 1788,  and  derives  something  of  its  importance  from 
the  fact,  that  M.  de  Langle,  the  captain  of  the  Astrolabe, 
and  the  naturalist  of  the  Expedition,  with  ten  other  persons, 
lost  their  lives  on  the  island,  in  a  collision  with  the  natives. 

Upolu,  thirty-six  miles  west  of  Tutuila,  is  seventy  miles 
in  circumference.  It  is  not  so  lofty,  nor  so  much  broken,  as 
the  other  islands  of  the  group,  and  in  population,  beauty  and 
fertility,  far  exceeds  either  of  them.  The  land  rises  gradu- 
ally, for  some  distance  from  the  shore,  and  then  breaks  into  a 
succession  of  mountainous  ridges,  clothed  to  the  top  with 
verdure  of  the  richest  green.     "Wide  tracts  of  table  land  lie 

3 


194  BEAUTIFUL    SCENERY    OP    UPOLU.  [1839 

along  the  coast ;  and  there  are  broad  valleys  between  the 
ridges,  carpeted  with  the  finest  tropical  flowers,  and  sprinkled 
with  clumps  and  groves,  of  bread-fruit,  pandanus,  and  cocoa- 
nut.  The  steep  hill-sides  are  fringed  with  the  white  foliage 
of  the  candle-nut,  with  the  long  waving  fronds  of  arborescent 
ferns  and  the  graceful  plumes  of  the  mountain  palm.  The 
clustering  hamlets  of  the  natives  are  scattered  here  and  there  ; 
and  the  tasteful  cottage  of  the  missionary,  and  the  neat 
chapel,  peep  out,  once  in  a  while,  from  the  deeply-shaded 
bowers  that  overhang  them.  The  beautiful  and  the  wild, 
the  pretty  and  the  picturesque,  are  exhibited  in  striking 
contrast.  On  one  side,  there  is  all  the  dreamy  softness  of 
an  Italian  landscape  ;  on  the  other,  the  sublime  grandeur  of 
Alpine  scenery.  Tiny  brooklets,  singing  ever  so  many  a 
joyous  lullaby,  course  down  the  upper  slopes,  and  anon, 
widening  into  miniature  rivers,  leap  in  cascades  of  milky 
foam  over  precipices  seven  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Wild  glades  and  glens  there  are,  within  whose 
sylvan  recesses  the  spirit  of  romance  might  forever  love  to 
linger,  and  where 

"  Gentle  gales, 
Fanning  their  odoriferous  wings,  dispense 
Native  pr.rfumes,  and  whisper  whence  they  stole 
Their  balmy  spoils." 

Withiu  the  sea  reef  of  Upolu,  and  near  its  western  extrem- 
ity, is  the  island  of  Manono,  but  four  miles  in  circumference, 
yet  containing  eleven,  hundred  inhabitants  and  a  missionary 
station.  Connected  with  Upolu  and  Manono  by  a  line  of 
soundings,  is  Apolima — in  former  days  the  olo  (citadel),  or 
place  of  refuge,  of  the  inhabitants  of  Manono  in  time  of  war 
and  danger.  This  is  a  small  castellated  island,  the  crater  of 
an  extinct  volcano,  surrounded  by  perpendicular  cliffs  almost 
five  hundred  feet  high,  which  are  unbroken  and  inaccessible 
save  at  one  point,  where  there  is  a  slight  indentation,  forming 
a  bay,  with  an  entrance  large  enough  to  admit  the  passage 
of  one  small  boat  at  a  time,  and  therefore  quite  easy  to  bo 
defended  against  a  much  superior  enemy.     On  the  elevated 


1839.]  STREAMS    AND    LAKES.  195 

tableau  there  is  sufficient  depth  of  soil  to  support  the  cocoa, 
bread-fruit,  and  banana ;  and  taro  and  yams  are  cultivated 
by  the  inhabitants,  who  do  not  exceed  five  hundred  in 
number. 

Savaii,  the  farthest  west,  and  the  largest  of  the  group,  is 
also  connected  with  Apolima  by  a  line  of  soundings.  It  is 
not  as  populous  or  as  important  as  Upolu,  and  its  coast  out- 
line is  much  less  beautiful.  It  is  over  one  hundred  miles  in 
circumference,  and  is  protected,  on  the  north  and  east,  from 
the  violence  of  the  surf,  by  reefs  of  coral ;  but,  on  the  oppo- 
site sides,  the  breakers  dash  unchecked  against  its  rocky 
bulwarks.  Except  on  the  south  and  west,  the  shores  are  low, 
and  there  is  a  gradual  ascent  to  the  centre  of  the  island, 
where  many  abrupt  volcanic  craters  are  seen,  whose  fires 
were  long  since  silenced,  above  which  towers  a  single  peak, 
four  thousand  five  hundred  feet  high,  almost  always  envel- 
oped in  clouds,  and  in  a  clear  day  visible  at  a  distance  of 
fifty  or  sixty  miles. 

Mountain  streamlets,  sometimes  forming  quite  respectable 
rivers,  frequently  intersect  the  larger  islands,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Savaii,  which  has  no  permanent  streams,  though 
possessing  an  abundance  of  copious  springs.  There  are  like- 
wise numerous  lakes  and  waterfalls, — the  latter  of  which 
may  one  day  be  serviceable  for  mills  or  machinery.  On 
Upolu  there  is  a  pretty  lake,  called  Laiito,  occupying  the 
basin  of  a  crater,  twenty-four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above 
the  sea,  with  nine  and  a  half  fathoms  of  water  in  its  deepest 
part,  and  a  subterranean  outlet. 

Like  the  Society  Islands,  the  members  of  this  group  are 
generally  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  with  occasional  channels, 
or  openings,  dividing  them,  through  which  vessels  may  pass, 
and  appear  to  be  of  volcanic  origin.  The  general  structure 
of  the  islands  is  conglomerate,  of  a  drab  color,  lying  in  hori- 
zontal strata.  The  mural  walls  and  precipices  upon  which, 
as  it  were,  the  upper  stratum,  or  productive  soil,  rests,  are 
of  basaltic  rock.  There  is  an  abundance  of  scoria ;  currents 
of  lava  are  visible ;  and  it  is  also  found  in  large  blocks  full  of 


196  GEOLOGY   AND   CLIMATE.  [1839 

vesicles.  The  rocks  of  basaltic  lava  contain  augite,  olivine, 
common  feldspar  and  albite.  All  the  higher  hills  and  moun- 
tain peaks  are  crateriform.  The  beaches  consist  of  a  light- 
.colored  sand,  composed  of  a  mixture  of  coral  and  shells. 
Coral  debris  is  found  on  the  smaller  islands,  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  larger  ones.  The  soil  is  principally  formed  of 
decomposed  volcanic  rocks  and  vegetable  mould. 

The  climate  is  mild  and  agreeable,  and  the  mean  temper- 
ature about  80°.  It  is  more  moist  than  at  Tahiti,  and  the 
vegetation  is  more  thrifty.  Nearly  one  third  of  the  days  in  a 
year  are  rainy.  From  April  to  November,  the  season  is  fine, 
— the  winds  being  light,  and  affording  merely  a  pleasant 
variety  to  the  long-continued  calms.  During  the  remainder 
of  the  year  high  winds  prevail,  principally  from  the  south- 
ward and  eastward.  Destructive  hurricanes  sometimes 
occur,  and  earthquakes  are  not  infrequent.  The  latter  are 
not  usually  violent,  but  produce  a  slight  wavy  motion,  like 
that  of  a  vessel  in  an  ordinary  sea. 

(3.)  On  the  northwest  side  of  JYIanua,  there  is  a  small 
settlement,  and  anchorage  ground  for  vessels  of  light  draught, 
with  a  pretty  little  cove  to  land  in,  in  pleasant  weather. 
Near  the  village  are  a  number  of  irregularly-shaped  stone 
walls,  the  object  of  the  erection  of  which  is  not  known,  but 
they  are  supposed  to  have  been  intended  for  defence. 

Pago-pago,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Tutuila,  is 
the  largest,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  important  harbor, 
in  the  group.  It  is  deep  and  land-locked — penetrating  so  far 
into  the  interior  as  to  cut  the  island  nearly  in  two,  and  lined 
on  both  sides  by  steep  inaccessible  precipices,  from  eight 
hundred  to  a  thousand  feet  high.  The  coast,  on  either  hand 
of  the  entrance,  which  is  about  one  third  of  a  mile  in  width, 
is  bold  and  rugged.  Opposite  the  opening,  at  some  three 
miles  distance  from  the  shore,  is  a  coral  bank  on  which  the 
sea  breaks  in  stormy  weather.  Except  during  a  strong 
southerly  gale,  vessels  of  almost  any  class  may  run  into  the 
harbor  in  safety.  If  the  wind  be  unfavorable,  it  requires  con- 
siderable tacking  to  get  in  or  out,  but  the  place  boasts  a  white 


1839.]  PRINCIPAL    HARBORS.  197 

pilot,  who  has  established  himself  there,  and  is  always  ready- 
to  come  off  when  the  proper  signal  is  given.  The  village  of 
Pago-pago  contains  but  about  forty  dwellings,  a  council-house, 
(fale-tele),  and  a  neat  church.  Supplies  can  be  obtained 
here  in  abundance. 

On  the  southern  coast  of  Tutuila,  there  are,  also,  two  other 
small  villages,  called  Faigatua  and  Leone,  belonging  to  the 
"  devil's  men,"  as  the  heathen,  or  unconverted  natives,  are  styled 
by  the  christian  party.  There  are,  likewise,  desirable  ports, 
or  bays,  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  at  which  vessels  can 
procure  water  and  supplies.  Among  them  are  Fungasar  and 
Massacre  Bay, — the  latter  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  M.  de 
Langle  and  his  party. 

Apia,  on  Upolu,  is  a  safe  and  spacious  harbor,  less  difficult 
of  access  than  Pago-pago.  It  faces  the  north,  and  ordinarily 
admits  of  easy  ingress  and  egress.  The  bottom  is  sandy, 
and  at  twenty-five  yards  distance  from  the  shore,  there  are 
five  fathoms  of  water.  As  a  river  empties  into  the  bay 
which  forms  the  harbor,  fresh  water  is  easily  obtained.  The 
town  of  Apia  is  about  the  same  size  as  Pago-pago,  and  con- 
tains a  large  fale-tele,  and  a  pretty  white  stone  church,  con- 
structed under  the  direction  of  the  missionaries.  Twenty 
miles  west  of  Apia,  is  Fasetootai,  having  a  small  harbor 
within  the  reef;  and  between  the  two  places  is  Sagana,  a 
neat  settlement  containing  six  hundred  inhabitants,  and 
a  missionary  school.  It  is  situated  on  a  peninsula,  and  is 
surrounded  by  cultivated  grounds,  intersected  by  broad  walks 
and  paths,  the  fruits  and  crops  growing  on  which  are  pro- 
tected from  the  ravages  of  the  swine  by  a  stone  wall  extend- 
ing across  the  isthmus. 

Savaii  has  numerous  inlets,  but  they  are  either  too  shal- 
low to  float  large  vessels,  or  only  large  enough  to  admit  the 
entrance  of  small  ooats.  Mataatua  Bay,  on  the  north  point  of 
the  island,  is  an  exception,  however,  and  affords  good  anchor- 
age except  when  northwesterly  winds  prevail.  Paluale  on 
the  eastern  end  of  the  island,  and  Felialupo  on  the  north- 
western point,  are  small  but  pleasantly  located  villages. 


198  INHABITANTS.  [1839. 

(4.)  Formerly,  the  population  of  the  Navigator  Group  was 
supposed  to  be  one  hundred  thousand,  but  it  is  now  estimated 
by  the  missionaries  at  only  sixty  thousand.  Infanticide  has 
never  been  practiced  here,  as  at  the  Society  Islands ;  but  se- 
vere and  bloody  wars  have  been  frequent,  sometimes  whole 
districts  being  depopulated  by  them.  It  is  not  improbable, 
therefore,  though  by  no  means  certain,  that  the  number  of 
inhabitants  is  not  so  large  as  at  the  time  of  the  first  discovery 
of  the  islands. 

In  complexion,  the  Samoan  is,  perhaps,  a  shade  darker 
than  the  Society  Islander,  but  in  their  features  there  is  a 
strong  resemblance.  The  first  is  taller  and  better  formed, 
and  altogether  of  more  commanding  presence,  than  any  of 
the  other  Polynesians,  except,  it  may  be,  the  Tongese.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Navigators'  Islands 
have  frank  and  open,  intelligent  and  pleasing  countenances ; 
their  eyes  are  black  ;  their  teeth  good  and  white ;  and  their 
hair  dark,  coarse,  and  straight,  though  sometimes  curled,  or 
frizzled.  The  men  are  strong  and  muscular,  fierce  and  war- 
like, active  and  energetic  in  disposition.  There  is  a  wide 
difference,  however,  between  the  chiefs  and  the  kanakas,  or 
common  people,  in  regard  to  personal  appearance.  The  for- 
mer are  more  athletic,  better  made,  and  superior  in  physical 
strength  and  dignity  of  deportment.* 

"When  young,  the  Samoan  women  are  tolerably  handsome ; 
but  as  they  advance  in  years,  they  become  too  stout  and  cor- 
pulent to  be  called  even  good-looking.  But  this  change  is 
not  produced,  as  might  be  supposed,  by  hard  labor  or  ill- 
usage.  On  the  contrary,  woman  is  here  treated  with  a 
respect  not  usual  among  the  savage  islanders ;  she  enjoys 
nearly  the  same  privileges  as  the  man ;  the  affections  are 
strongly  manifested,  and  the  ties  between  husband  and  wife, 

*  This  fact  has  been  remarked  almost  everywhere  in  the  Pacific,  and  has  led 
many  travellers  and  scientific  men  to  suppose,  not  without  reason,  that  the 
Polynesian  chiefs  belong  to  a  distinct  race  who  reduced  the  former  occupants 
of  the  islands  to  subjection. — See  Ellis'  Polynesian  Researches,  Vol.  I,  p.  78,  et 
«eq. ;  and  Moerenhout,  Vol.  II,  p.  247,  et  seq. 


1839.]  THE    SAMOAN    WOMEN.  199 

parent  and  child,  in  the  main  sacredly  regarded.  All  the 
hard  work,  even  that  of  cooking,  is  performed  by  the  men, 
while  their  wives  and  daughters  are  engaged  in  beating  tapa, 
or  some  other  light  employment.  The  women  are  reserved 
in  their  manners,  and  particularly  cautious  in  their  inter- 
course with  foreigners :  though  chastity  is  a  rare  virtue  in 
the  Pacific,  where  they  have  not  been  corrupted  by  the 
whites,  they  possess  a  great  deal  of  that  native  modesty, 
which,  like  the  element  of  fire,  can  never  change  its  nature, 

"  But  burns  as  brightly  in  a  gipsy  camp, 
As  in  a  palace  hall." 

Adultery  is  not  common,  even  among  the  u  devil's  men ;" 
and  wherever  the  missionary  influence  has  extended,  it  is 
regarded  as  a  high  offence,  and  is  severely  punished.  Polyg- 
amy is  still  practiced  to  some  extent,  but  it  is  nearly  abol- 
ished ;  and  a  great  many  have  been  forced  to  yield  to  public 
opinion  on  this  subject,  who,  wedded  to  ancient  customs,  look 
back  to  the  days  when  that  abomination  was  generally  toler- 
ated, with  regret.  The  husband  may  repudiate  his  wife, 
however,  if  he  is  so  inclined  ;  but  the  wife  cannot  separate 
herself  from  her  husband  without  his  consent. 

The  Samoans  are  thrifty  and  industrious,  though,  as  their 
wants  are  so  easily  supplied,  there  is  little  inducement  to 
labor.  They  are  cunning  and  inquisitive,  yet  generally 
honest  and  well-behaved.  On  public  occasions,  in  the  church 
or  council-house,  they  are  sedate  in  manner,  but  they  havo 
kind  and  social  dispositions,  and  are  extremely  fond  of  visit- 
ing. They  can  conduct  themselves  with  great  propriety, 
whenever  it  is  necessary,  for  they  are  not  deficient  in  self- 
respect  ;  but  their  hearts  are  naturally  as  light  as  the  soft 
atmosphere  that  rests  over  their  verdant  hills  and  lovely 
valleys.  They  are  fond  of  receiving  presents,  and  often  lib- 
eral in  tendering  them,  in  return,  though  not  offended  when 
they  are  declined.  Hospitality  is  one  of  their  chief  virtues  ; 
still  they  always  expect  pay  for  any  services  they  may  ren- 
der, not  so  much  out  of  selfishness,  as  because  they  havo 


200  TRAITS    AND    CHARACTERISTICS.  [1839 

always  been  accustomed  to  receive  gifts,  by  way  of  remun- 
eration or  otherwise,  from  the  whites,  ever  since  the  first 
discovery  of  the  group.  Their  minds  are  susceptible  of  cul- 
tivation, and  a  thirst  for  obtaining  information  pervades  all 
classes.  They  are  a  poetic  people,  and  have  numerous 
beautiful  legends,  which  they  are  fond  of  repeating.  They 
have  some  considerable  musical  talent,  too,  and  the  males 
have  clear  and  fine  voices  ;  their  singing  is  monotonous,  but 
correct  in  harmony. 

Pride  of  character  is  not  wanting  among  them  ;  their  chiefs 
know  very  well  how  to  maintain  their  dignity,  and,  while 
thus  solicitous  on  their  own  account,  they  bold  the  memory 
and  reputation  of  their  ancestors,  in  great  veneration  and 
esteem.  A  calm  and  dignified  mien  is  thought  to  be  the 
most  fitting  at  their  public  assemblages,  except  where  amuse- 
ment is  the  order  of  the  day ;  the  utmost  decorum  is  pre- 
served ;  no  one  stands  in  the  presence  of  his  superior ;  and 
all  conversation  is  carried  on  in  a  whisper.  In  respect  to 
talent,  they  are  far  above  mediocrity,  as  those  will  bear  wit- 
ness who  have  observed  the  shrewdness,  tact,  and  ability, 
displayed  by  the  speakers  at  the  native  councils. 

Cleanliness  in  their  personal  habits  is  another  characteristic 
of  this  people.  The  first  thing  the  Samoan  does  in  the  morn- 
ing, after  he  rises  from  his  rude  couch,  and  before  going 
to  his  daily  occupation,  is  to  bathe  thoroughly  ;  and  then  he- 
anoints  his  body  with  cocoa-nut  oil  and  turmeric, — both  for 
the  sake  of  the  shining  appearance  thereby  communicated,, 
which  they  esteem  an  ornament,  and,  as  they  allege,  to  pre- 
serve their  suppleness  and  elasticity  of  limb.  The  females 
bathe  daily,  and  anoint  their  bodies,  as  well  as  the  men.  All, 
of  every  age  and  sex,  practice  frequent  bathing,  not  merely 
as  a  cleanly  habit,  but  as  an  amusement;  and  they  have 
become  so  much  attached  to  it,  that  the  missionaries  have 
felt  constrained  to  prohibit  it  altogether  on  the  Sabbath. 
Excessive  eating,  bordering  on  gluttony,  is  a  common  vice, 
but  they  drink  sparingly  of  wine  and  liquors,  unless  it  be 


1839.]  THE  "  devil's  men."  201 

among  the  inhabitants  of  the  "  devil's  towns,"  where  greater 
latitude  is  claimed  and  allowed. 

There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  these  general  remarks 
in  regard  to  the  traits  and  characteristics  of  the  people  of  the 
Navigator  Group.  A  striking  difference  is  observable  be- 
tween the  towns  belonging  to  the  "  devil's  men,"  and  those 
of  the  other  party  ;  and  a  similar  difference  may  be  remarked 
in  the  conduct  of  their  respective  inhabitants.  But  their 
natural  dispositions  are  the  same,  whether  they  be  christian 
or  heathen,  only  the  better  qualities  which  all  possess,  are 
more  conspicuous  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  The  hea- 
then are  more  wild,  blood-thirsty,  and  vindictive  than  the 
christians ;  but,  though  living  side  by  side,  there  are  com- 
paratively few  broils  and  contentions  between  the  two  par- 
ties. The  "  devil's  men"  are  equally  hospitable  with  their 
neighbors,  when  the  fit  is  on  them,  but  they  are  sometimes 
sullen  and  surly,  though  it  is  said  that  strangers  may  travel 
through  their  towns  and  districts,  entirely  unarmed,  without 
being  molested.  Fondness  for  ava  was  once  a  national  fail- 
ing, and  the  heathen  continue  to  drink  it  to  excess  ;  they  are 
also  great  gormands,  and  frequently  have  large  feasts,  at 
which  they  devour  numbers  of  hogs,  and  quantities  of  other 
eatables,  till  their  literally  swinish  appetites  become  com- 
pletely satiated.  The  heathen  women  are  bashful  and  re- 
served to  some  extent, —  more  so,  indeed,  than  might  bo 
expected, — yet  they  lack  the  remarkable  naivete  of  the 
christian  damsel. 

For  some  reason  or  other,  also,  the  people  of  Savaii  differ 
slightly  in  physiognomy,  and  in  their  manners  and  appear- 
ance, from  the  inhabitants  of  the  other  islands  ;  their  features 
are  more  regular,  and  the  women  more  gracefully  formed. 
Their  spears  and  war-clubs,  too,  are  not  exactly  of  the  same 
fashion,  and  they  are  more  neatly  made. 

A  fondness  for  traffic  is  common  to  them  all ;  they  are 
ever  ready  to  exchange  their  fruit,  fowls,  and  hogs,  for  tools, 
cloth,  powder,  tobacco,  and  trinkets,  though  the  christians 
care  but  little  for  the  last  two.     They  aro  quite  shrewd  at  a 

9* 


202  diseases.  [1839. 

bargain,  and  the  people  of  Savaii  would  dc  no  discredit,  in 
this  respect,  to  the  land  of  wooden  nutmegs  and  cucumber 
seeds. 

Fevers  and  syphilitic  complaints  are  very  rare  on  these 
islands.  The  diseases  to  which  the  inhabitants  are  subject, 
are  generally  of  a  sporadic  character.  The  most  prevalent 
are  dysentery,  caries,  catarrh,  and  bronchial  disorders.  Oph- 
thalmia is  often  produced  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  reflected 
from  the  sand.  Elephantiasis, — which  is  here  attributed  to 
eating  food  without  salt,  drinking  cocoa-nut  water,  exposure 
at  night,  and  want  of  exercise, — is  also  quite  common. 
Children  are  very  liable  to  an  eruptive  complaint,  called 
ilumea,  which  breaks  out  on  their  heads.  The  only  remedy 
which  the  natives  had  for  disease,  besides  bathing,  was  sham- 
pooing; but  since  the  missionaries  appeared  among  them, 
they  have  been  supplied  with  proper  medicines  as  far  as  was 
possible,  and  have  received  better  medical  attendance. 

It  has  been  well  doubted  whether  any  living  language 
could  be  properly  regarded  as  the  parent  stock  of  the  Poly- 
nesian.* The  language  of  the  Samoiin  Group  is,  doubtless, 
a  branch  of  the  Malay ;  but  it  has  so  many  features  analo- 
gous to  other  tongues  and  dialects,  that  it  would  require  all 
the  credulity  of  Lord  Kingsborough  to  reconcile  them.  It  is 
constructed  like  the  Tahitian,  though  it  is  smoother,  softer, 
more  flexible,  and  not  so  easily  spoken.  It  is  the  only  Poly- 
nesian language  in  which  the  sound  of  s  is  heard.  Notwith- 
standing the  resemblance,  in  its  construction,  to  that  of  the 
Society  Islands,  the  inhabitants  of  that  group  and  the  Samoans 
cannot  understand  each  other. 

The  maro  was,  originally,  almost  the  only  article  of  cloth- 
ing worn  by  the  natives ;  and  it  is  now  the  ordinary  dress  of 
the  common  people,  being  well  adapted  for  active  exercise, 
not  cumbersome,  light,  easily  made,  and  easily  renewed.  It 
is  constructed  of  the  leaves  of  the  ti,  (draccena,)  which  are 
sometimes  slit,  and  thus  form  a  short  petticoat.  It  is  worn 
about  the  loins  and  between  the  thighs,  so  as  to  conceal  the 

♦  Crawfurd's  Indian  Archipelago,  Vol.  II,  p.  80,  et  scq. 


1839.]  dress.  203 

pubes.  A  dress,  called  the  titi,  made  of  the  same  materials, 
is  also  worn  in  the  heathen  villages,  particularly  by  the  fe- 
males :  it  is  merely  an  apron  or  girdle  extending  round  the 
body,  and  reaching  from  the  loins  half  way  down  the  thighs 
or  to  the  knees.  The  titi  is  much  cooler  than  the  maro,  but 
like  the  latter  requires  frequent  changing,  as  the  leaves  soon 
wilt  and  decay.  Tapa  mantles  are  worn  by  the  chiefs  and 
their  attendants,  whenever  they  appear  in  public.  Beautiful 
shaggy  mats  made  of  the  fibres  of  the  hibiscus,  fastened  at 
the  neck  and  hanging  down  to  the  feet,  are  worn  by  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  chiefs. 

Latterly,  the  missionaries  have  introduced  the  siapo  from 
the  Friendly  Islands.  This  garment  resembles  the  Tahitian 
pareu,  and  is  either  made  of  cotton  cloth,  or  of  ti  or  pandanus 
leaves.  They  have  also  brought  the  tiputa, — the  ancient 
dress  of  the  women  in  the  Society  Islands,  and  like  the  South 
American  poncho  in  shape  and  form, — into  partial  use,  among 
the  Samoan  women. 

Articles  of  European  costume  are  occasionally  seen.  Some 
of  the  chiefs  are  the  owners  of  white  striped  cotton  shirts, 
white  vests,  sailors'  blue  cloth  round  jackets  and  pantaloons, 
fur  hats  and  coarse  brogans,  in  which  they  appear  on  extraor- 
dinary occasions ;  and  their  wives  and  daughters  are  equally 
fortunate  in  the  possession  of  calico  or  gingham  frocks,  waist 
ribbons,  flaring  straw  bonnets,  and  morocco  shoes. 

Of  ornaments  but  few  are  worn.  After  taking  her  daily 
bath,  and  anointing  her  person,  the  Samoan  girl  sometimes 
arranges  her  hair  in  ringlets,  entwined  with  flowers  :  but 
this  practice  is  fast  going  out  of  date,  as  it  is  now  the  custom 
to  crop  the  hair  close  in  the  christian  towns,  and  it  is  often 
filled  with  fine  coral  sand,  lime,  or  ashes,  to  destroy  the  ver- 
min. The  missionaries,  too,  have  interdicted  the  use  of 
flowers.  The  native  men  wear  a  shell  suspended  from  the 
neck  by  a  string,  as  an  amulet.  Tattooing  is  regarded  as 
the  emblem  of  manhood  ;  it  is  performed,  at  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  is  very  expensive.  The  males 
have  their  whole  bodies,  from  their  breasts  to  their  knees, 


204  ORNAMENTS    AND    OCCUPATIONS.  [1839. 

covered  with  the  ornaments ;  but  the  females  have  only  a 
few  lines  around  their  hands,  arms,  and  legs.  The  young 
women  in  the  heathen  villages  also  paint  a  spot  on  each 
breast,  from  the  size  of  a  dollar  to  that  of  a  small  plate,  of  a 
reddish  brown  color. 

In  the  christian  towns  the  hair  is  shaven  close,  but  among 
the  heathen  it  is  suffered  to  grow,  and  gathered  in  a  knot  at 
the  back  of  the  head,  which  adds  very  much  to  their  wild 
and  ferocious  appearance. 

Having  few  wants,  the  Samoan  has  few  cares.  A  house, 
a  taro  and  yam  patch,  a  visiting  canoe,  a  half  dozen  pigs, 
several  bread-fruit  and  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  a  neat,  well-form- 
ed woman,  for  a  wife,  will  satisfy  the  ambition  of  any  man. 
But  though  all  these  are  easily  acquired,  the  converted  Sa- 
moan is  not  improvident,  though  eating,  bathing,  sleeping,  and 
dancing,  are  the  chief  employments  and  occupations  of  his 
heathen  neighbor.  In  the  christian  villages  the  men  assist 
in  cooking,  cultivate  and  weed  their  taro  and  yam  patches, 
repair  their  fences,  build  houses  and  canoes,  and  make  sennit 
The  women  do  the  light  household  work,  beat  tapa,  and 
weave  mats  and  other  similar  articles.  The  boys  and  girls 
in  a  family  either  wait  upon  their  parents,  or  spend  their 
time  in  playing.  Both  young  and  old  occupy  a  great  many 
of  their  leisure  hours  in  reading  and  study,  of  which  they  are 
very  fond ;  and  there  are  now  between  ten  and  twelve  thou- 
sand persons  in  the  group  who  can  read  with  great  facility. 

Fishing  and  bird-catching  are  favorite  amusements  of  all 
classes ;  and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  a  great  deal  of  skill 
and  expertness  is  exhibited  in  their  prosecution.  Of  boxing 
and  wrestling  they  were  likewise  once  fond,  but  these  sports 
are  much  less  common  now.  Singing  and  dancing  are  not 
so  much  in  vogue  as  formerly,  except  in  the  heathen  towns. 
The  chief  dance  is  called  siva  ;  it  is  lascivious  and  ungrace- 
ful, and  the  christian  girl  cannot  easily  be  induced  to  exhibit 
in  it.  This  dance  consists  in  throwing  the  legs,  arms,  and 
bodies,  into  divers  graceless  and  wanton  postures ;  and  is  per- 
formed at  the  f ale-teles  in  the  heathen  towns,  by  the  native 


1839.]  AMUSEMENTS.  205 

girls,  for  the  entertainment  of  guests  and  visitors.  The  men 
likewise  have  their  dances,  which  are  not  so  indecorous,  and 
which  they  perform  in  parties,  advancing  and  retreating, 
clapping  their  hands,  and  stamping  with  their  feet. 

Their  principal  musical  instruments  are  the  drum  and  flute. 
The  first  is  long  and  narrow,  and  is  made  of  a  part  of  a  tree 
hollowed  out.  The  flute  is  of  bamboo,  usually  about  one 
inch  in  diameter  and  sixteen  inches  long.  They  also  make 
pipes  of  the  bamboo,  and  have  a  rude  sort  of  guitar  formed  of 
a  loose  slat  fitted  into  a  piece  of  board,  upon  which  they  beat 
with  two  sticks. 

They  have  a  number  of  games.  Among  them  is  that  of 
lafe,  which  resembles  shuffle  board,  and  is  played  by  the 
chiefs  only,  on  a  mat,  with  cocoa-nut  shells  finely  carved  and 
ornamented.  Tua'e-fua  consists  in  keeping  balls  in  the  air, 
like  the  Chinese  jugglers  ;  and  litia,  in  throwing  light  spears 
of  hibiscus  rods.  Lupe  is  played  by  two  persons ;  the  one 
strikes  the  back  of  his  closed  fist  on  a  table,  and  then  holds 
up,  instantly,  one  or  more  fingers ;  if  his  opponent  fails  to 
hold  up  the  same  fingers  immediately,  he  loses  one  point,  and 
there  are  ten  in  the  game. 

In  each  village  there  is  a  f ale-tele,  or  council  house,  where 
the  fonos,  or  public  meetings,  are  held.  In  the  heathen 
towns,  also,  strangers  are  entertained  in  them  with  feasts  and 
dances. 

When  the  Samoan  salutes  a  friend,  or  visitor,  he  takes  his 
hand,  and  rubs  the  back  of  it  against  his  own  nose. 

As  in  most  savage,  or  unenlightened  nations,  wives  are 
obtained  by  making  presents  to  the  parents,  usually  to  the 
father.  Marriages  take  place  early.  Girls  are  betrothed 
without  regard  to  age,  and  are  sad,  or  taboo,  till  they  become 
marriageable.  After  the  betrothal,  the  parties  commence  the 
preparations  for  housekeeping ;  a  house  is  built,  and  a  supply 
of  mats  and  tapas  made.  Two  days  previous  to  the  marriage 
are  taken  up  with  feasts  and  amusements ;  and  on  the  third 
day,  the  bride  is  produced  before  the  guests,  the  Jewish  cere- 
mony customary  on  such  occasions  is  performed,  the  mar- 


206  customs.  [1839. 

riage  is  consummated,  and  the  day  ends,  among  the  heathen, 
in  riotous  feasting  and  dancing. 

Parturition  takes  place  without  danger,  difficulty,  or  cere- 
mony. After  delivery,  the  mother  takes  the  infant  to  the 
nearest  spring,  bathes  it,  and  returns  to  her  ordinary  occupa- 
tions, just  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  Names  are  given  to 
males  and  females  indiscriminately,  previous  to  the  birth. 
Children  are  usually  suckled  till  they  are  six  years  old,  and 
some  women  have  been  known  to  suckle  two  or  three  of  their 
offspring  of  different  ages,  at  the  same  time. 

They  are  not  very  ceremonious  in  regard  to  burials,  but  it 
is  customary  to  feast  those  who  are  present. 

In  the  preparation  of  food,  their  customs  are  similar  to 
those  which  prevail  throughout  the  Pacific  islands.  Their 
stove  is  the  well-known  Polynesian  one — a  hollow  in  the  earth 
lined  with  heated  stones,  and  another  layer  over  the  articles 
to  be  cooked,  with  a  thin  covering  of  earth  and  leaves  above. 
They  have  no  fixed  time  for  taking  their  meals,  but  eat  when 
they  are  hungry.  Pork,  fowls,  birds,  fish,  bread-fruit,  cocoa- 
nuts,  bananas,  taro  and  yams,  are  their  chief  articles  of  food. 
Rata,  the  native  chestnut,  is  also  much  eaten.  The  sour 
paste,  called  mahi,  made  from  the  bread-fruit,  is  used  when 
the  trees  are  not  in  a  bearing  state.  Pig,  taro  and  bread- 
fruit, are  served  up  for  visitors  on  banana  leaves  ;  and  some- 
times cooked  bread-fruit,  or  the  delicious  cocoa-nut  pudding 
(faiai),  is  handed  round  in  wooden  trays.  When  eaten,  the 
bread-fruit  is  dipped  in  salt  water,  or  cocoa-nut  oil.  Their 
drinking  vessels  are  made  of  cocoa-nut  shells. 

As  has  been  before  mentioned,  the  heathen  are  exceeding 
great  gluttons.  They  eat  hogs,  biche  de  mer,  echina,  holi- 
thuria,  and  wood-maggots,  entrails  and  all,  with  unusual 
gout. 

They  have  a  fine  beverage  in  the  cocoa-nut  milk,  which 
they  heat  in  shells ;  but  they  are  far  more  attached,  espe- 
cially the  "  devil's  men,"  to  their  stimulating  ava.  This  is 
prepared  in  a  most  disgusting  way.  The  ava  plant,  {piper 
mythisticum,)  is  chewed  by  the  women,  and  then  thrown 


1839.]  GOVERNMENT.  207 

into  a  large  bowl — the  saliva  of  the  females,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  chica  among  the  Indians  of  Chili,  being  supposed 
to  produce  the  necessary  fermentation ;  water  is  then  added, 
after  which  the  delectable  compound  is  strained  through  the 
leaves  of  the  plant.  Being  now  fit  for  use,  it  is  guzzled 
down  by  the  Samoan  toper,  in  copious  draughts,  stinted 
neither  in  number  nor  quantity. 

(5.)  There  is  no  general  sovereign  head  in  these  islands, 
and  the  Executive  power  is  claimed,  and  in  most  cases  really 
possessed,  by  the  principal  chiefs.  There  are  what  may  be 
termed  four  different  estates — the  principal  chiefs,  the  alii,  or 
minor  chiefs,  the  tulafales,  or  landholders,  and  the  common 
people.  The  islands  are  divided  into  districts,  each  of  which 
has  a  principal  chief,  though  some  are  of  superior  rank  to 
others,  and  a  distinct  government.  The  fonos,  or  public 
meetings,  are  attended  by  the  alii  and  tulafales,  who  decide 
what  is  to  be  done.  The  most  influential  chiefs  generally 
carry  everything  before  them.  The  tulu-fono,  or  decision 
of  the  council,  is  always  held  in  respect,  and  must  be  obeyed. 

Upolu  and  Savaii,  though  divided  into  districts,  and  Ma- 
nono,  which,  with  Apolima,  constitutes  a  district  by  itself, 
are  united  together  in  a  sort  of  compact ;  that  is,  on  occa- 
sions affecting  the  general  welfare,  the  principal  chiefs  of  the 
different  districts  meet  together  in  council,  and  act  in  concert 
in  carrying  their  determinations  into  effect.  Tutuila  is  divid- 
ed into  several  districts,  the  head  chiefs  of  which  frequently 
hold  similar  councils.  Manua,  Ofoo,  and  Oloosinga,  have 
what  is  called,  by  way  of  courtesy,  a  king,  who  resides  some- 
times on  one  island  and  sometimes  on  another ;  but  he  is 
little  more  than  a  chief  of  the  highest  rank,  and  his  authority 
is  treated  with  very  little  respect. 

Few  crimes  are  committed ;  and  the  state  of  society  is 
fully  as  good,  and  personal  rights  are  as  much  respected,  as 
could  reasonably  be  looked  for,  considering  how  short  a  time 
has  elapsed  since  the  light  of  civilization  and  Christianity  first 
dawned  upon  these  islands.  Among  the  christians,  the  ten 
commandments  constitute  their  common  law ;  and  any  in- 


208  STATE    OP    SOCIETY.  [1839. 

fringement  of  them  is  punished,  usually  with  promptitude, 
by  expelling  the  offender  from  the  church  and  forbidding  his 
attendance  on  public  worship.  Deep  disgrace  always  at- 
taches to  those  who  have  been  thus  dealt  with.  In  the 
heathen  towns,  crimes  are  punished  by  expulsion  from  the 
particular  village  or  community  to  which  the  offending  per- 
son belongs,  by  exposure  of  the  body  to  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
by  flogging,  by  cutting  off  the  ears,  by  confiscation  of  prop- 
erty, or  by  being  compelled  to  eat  noxious  herbs.  A  murder 
is  avenged  by  the  friends  and  relatives  of  the  deceased,  by 
putting  to  death  the  murderer  and  his  family,  if  they  are 
within  reach.  A  compensation,  however,  is  sometimes  made, 
in  property,  for  a  murder  ;  and  there  are  places  of  refuge, 
such  as  the  tombs  of  great  chiefs,  which  are  deemed  sacred, 
and  those  who  escape  to  them  are  free  from  molestation. 

Numerous  divinities  are  worshipped  by  the  heathen,  and 
were  formerly  held  in  reverence  and  esteem  by  all  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  group.  They  have  one  chief,  or  principal  god  ; 
three  war  gods  ;  a  god  of  earthquakes  ;  a  god  who  supports 
the  earth ;  gods  of  lightning,  wind,  and  rain  ;  and  a  great 
number  of  inferior  deities,  called  aitus.  Each  chief  has  his 
aitu,  or  familiar  spirit,  who  adheres  to  him  through  life,  like 
the  Demon  of  the  ancient  Greek,  and  whose  commands  he 
is  bound  to  obey.  Some  of  the  chiefs,  whose  vanity  and 
self-esteem  are  pretty  prominent,  believe  that  after  death 
they  become  aitus,  and,  in  turn,  exercise  the  office  of  spirit- 
ual guide  and  protector.  These  aitus  are  adopted  arbitrarily, 
and,  in  general,  are  birds,  animals,  or  reptiles.  After  their 
conversion,  the  christian  chiefs  treated  them  with  little  cere- 
mony ;  and  it  is  said  of  one,  whose  aitu  was  fresh  water  eels, 
that  the  first  thing  he  did  was  to  kill  and  eat  them. 

It  is  now  but  about  thirty  years  since  the  missionaries  of 
the  British  Board  began  their  labors  in  the  Samoiin  Group. 
Relying  solely  upon  moral  suasion,  preaching,  in  truth,  a 
gospel  of  peace,  and  discarding  entirely  the  use  of  forcible 
means,  they  have  obtained  an  influence  which  is  felt,  and 


1839.]  THE    MISSIONARIES.  209 

that  beneficially,  everywhere  throughout  the  islands.*  A 
few  abandoned  white  men,  in  connection  with  the  heathen 
chiefs,  have  endeavored  to  counteract  their  efforts  ;  but  they 
have  never  been  injured  or  insulted.  The  results  of  their 
ministry  are  before  the  world. 

Old  customs,  some  of  which, — the  use  of  flowers,  for  in- 
stance,— might,  we  think,  have  been  retained  without  preju- 
dice, have  been  done  away,  and  newer  and  better  ones 
introduced.  One  third  of  the  whole  population  are  professed 
christians.  The  schools  established  in  the  different  towns 
are  attended  by  over  twelve  thousand  pupils,  children  and 
adults.  Ordinarily,  it  is  as  still  and  quiet  on  the  Sabbath 
as  in  a  New  England  village.  Great  attention  is  paid  to 
religious  duties ;  frequent  exercises  are  held  during  the  week  ; 
and  grace  before  meals,  and  morning  and  evening  prayers, 
are  said.  There  are  about  a  dozen  missionaries,  who  are 
assisted  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  native  teachers,  on  the  dif- 
ferent islands.  They  have  a  printing  press  at  Upolu ;  and 
nearly  all  the  Bible  has  been  translated  and  printed  by  them, 
and  read  by  the  natives. 

(6.)  The  houses  of  the  natives  are  of  an  elliptical  form,  and 
from  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  length.  They  are  generally  built 
amidst  groves  of  bread-fruit  trees,  which  afford  their  inmates 
a  shelter  from  the  storm,  and  a  protection  against  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  Sometimes  they  are  erected  on  the  bare  earth, 
and  sometimes  on  flagged  terraces  of  stone  raised  from  two 
to  four  feet  above  the  ground.  In  the  former  case,  it  is 
usual  to  cover  the  floors  with  a  layer  of  small  stones,  in  order 
to  keep  them  dry.  In  the  centre  of  one  of  these  houses,  there 
are  several  upright  posts,  varying  in  number  with  the  size  of 
the  building,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high,  upon  which  a 
ridge  pole  is  laid  and  firmly  secured  by  lashings  of  sennit. 

*  One  of  the  most  efficient  and  successful  of  the  missionaries  on  the  Naviga- 
tors' Islands,  was  the  Rev.  John  Williams,  author  of  "  Missionary  Enterprises," 
and  "  The  Missionary's  Farewell,"  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  cause  in  which  he 
was  so  zealously  engaged,  shortly  after  the  squadron  sailed  from  the  group, — 
being  murdered  by  the  natives  of  the  New  Hebrides,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
propagate  the  gospel. 


210  NATIVE    HOUSES.  [1839. 

Rafters,  fastened  in  the  same  manner,  reach  from  this  pole 
down  to  the  outer  circle  of  posts,  about  four  feet  in  height, 
upon  which  are  extended  long  sticks  or  plates.  The  rafters 
are  connected  with  centre  posts,  nearly  half  way  down,  by  a 
network  of  cross  beams  and  braces.  The  roof  is  thatched, 
beginning  at  the  top  and  working  downwards,  and  projects 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  like  eaves.  Bamboo,  hibis- 
cus rods,  and  the  small  branches  of  other  trees,  wattled  to- 
gether, form  the  siding. 

Great  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  building  their  houses, 
though  in  their  shape  they  have  probably  imitated  those  of 
the  Friendly  Islanders.  The  wood  of  the  bread-fruit  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  all  the  main  timbers  and  posts.  The  rafters 
are  made  of  hibiscus.  All  the  fastenings  are  of  sennit. 
Their  fale-teles,  or  council  houses,  are  of  the  same  general 
fashion,  though  larger  and  more  firmly  built. 

The  floors  of  the  houses  are  covered  with  coarse  mats, 
and  in  the  better  class,  finer  ones  are  spread  over  these,  on 
all  occasions  of  ceremony.  A  few  rough-hewn  stools  and 
benches  are  the  seats  commonly  seen ;  but  in  the  houses  of  the 
wealthier  chiefs,  a  raised  dais  extends  round  the  inside  of 
the  outer  wall.  They  sleep  on  the  coarse  mats  used  for  car- 
peting, with  a  piece  of  bamboo,  or  tamanu  wood,  supported 
on  sticks,  for  a  pillow ;  and  sometimes  a  piece  of  colored  tapa 
is  hung  above  their  place  of  repose,  to  protect  them  against 
the  musquitoes.  Baskets,  mats,  and  cocoa-nut  shells  for  eat- 
ing and  drinking,  of  which  they  usually  have  an  abundance, 
are  scattered  about  in  every  part  of  the  dwelling,  and  con- 
spicuous among  the  articles  of  furniture,  is  the  vessel  in 
which  ava  is  prepared — the  wassail  bowl  of  the  Samoan. 
Now  and  then  an  old  musket  may  be  observed ;  and  in  the 
houses  of  the  "  devil's  men"  there  is  always  a  formidable 
array  of  clubs  and  spears,  made  of  the  iron  wood  (casuarina,) 
and  of  bows  and  arrows.  At  night,  a  lamp,  consisting  of  a 
cocoa  shell,  filled  with  the  oil  of  the  nut,  and  having  a  piece  of 
vine  stalk  for  a  wick,  is  kept  burning  till  daylight,  near  one  of 
the  main  centre  posts,  where  the  hearth  for  the  fire  is  situated. 


1839.]  COMMERCE.  211 

(7.)  Next  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  the 
Samoiins,  or  Navigators,  are  the  most  skilful  sailors  and 
fishermen  in  all  Polynesia ;  and  they  received  their  name 
from  De  Bougainville,  because  of  the  superior  construction  of 
their  canoes,  and  their  surprising  dexterity  in  the  water. 
Abundant  supplies  of  water  and  provisions  may  be  obtained  by 
vessels  on  these  islands,  but  there  are  few  articles  adapted  for 
foreign  commerce ;  still  they  may  eventually  become  of  some 
importance  in  this  respect,  especially  as  their  situation  in  the 
Great  Archipelago  is  so  central,  and  they  have  such  fine  har- 
bors. Tamanu  wood  for  furniture,  the  casuarina  for  its  rich 
dye,  and  other  trees  for  their  valuable  gums,  may  yet  be 
profitable  articles  of  exportation.  The  inhabitants  now  have 
considerably  more  cocoa-nut  oil  and  arrow- root,  than  can  be 
used  by  themselves  and  their  ordinary  visitors.  Tortoise 
shell  can  also  be  obtained  in  great  plenty  at  Savaii.  In  ex- 
change for  what  they  are  willing  to  dispose  of,  they  mainly 
desire  useful  articles, — such  as  cotton  cloths,  writing  paper, 
hardware,  needles  and  tools. 

Springs,  lakes,  and  streams,  abound  in  the  islands,  and 
machinery  might  be  worked  advantageously  in  many  places. 
The  natives  have  shown  that  they  did  not  lack  ingenuity,  by 
their  discovery  of  the  uses  to  which  the  wood  of  their  forest 
and  fruit  trees  might  be  applied,  and  the  construction  of  so 
many  articles  of  necessity  and  comfort,  with  their  miserable 
adzes  and  other  tools,  made  of  stone,  shell,  or  bone.  Since 
they  have  been  able  to  procure  iron  instruments,  they  have 
executed  their  work  much  more  neatly  and  handily.  Cocoa- 
nut  oil  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Society  Islands. 
They  likewise  prepare  a  very  good  article  of  lampblack  from 
the  candle-nut,  by  burning  large  quantities  of  it  in  a  curiously 
constructed  oven.  This  is  used  in  painting  their  canoes, 
idols  and  drums,  and  ornamenting  their  garments  with  vari- 
ous devices. 

Tapa  is  not  made  as  good  here  as  at  the  Society  Islands. 
The  mallet  used  is  larger,  and  the  board  is  not  springy. 
Some  of  their  mats,  however,  are  very  beautiful,  and  are  as 


212  canoes.  [1839 

smooth  and  soft  as  nankeen  cotton.  But  few  of  this  quality 
are  now  made,  as  a  single  one  requires  nearly  a  year's  la- 
bor. A  species  of  cloth,  of  which  parens,  siapos,  and  tipu- 
tas,  are  made,  is  manufactured,  by  the  women,  of  course,  of 
the  inner  bark  of  the  Chinese  paper  mulberry  (morus  papy~ 
rifera) ;  and  the  tree  is  now  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in 
nurseries.  The  stems,  or  branches,  are  cut  when  small,  and 
the  gum  separated  from  the  bark  by  washing.  The  bark  is 
then  beaten  like  tapa.  Both  the  mulberry  cloth  and  tapa 
are  varnished  with  the  gum  obtained  from  the  tuitui  tree, 
or  dyed  in  fanciful  colors  with  other  materials. 

The  largest  canoes  of  the  natives  are  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  long,  and  will  hold  twenty  or  twenty-five  persons.  Some 
are  built  of  a  single  log,  having  pieces  fastened  upon  it,  to 
raise  it  as  high  as  is  desired.  Others  are  formed  of  several 
pieces  of  bread-fruit  planks,  rudely  dovetailed  together,  and 
secured  with  sennit.  They  are  covered  in  at  both  ends, — 
thus  presenting  decks  forward  and  aft.  The  former  is  the 
post  of  honor,  where  the  chiefs  usually  sit  crosslegged  on  a 
platform,  underneath  an  awning  made  of  pandanus  leaves. 
For  cement,  they  use  pitch  manufactured  from  the  gum  of 
the  bread-fruit  tree.  The  paddles  are  long,  narrow,  and  ele- 
gantly shaped  ;  and  they  are  used  with  great  dexterity. 
Double  canoes  are  made  by  lashing  two  single  ones  side  by 
side.  Both  are  very  swift,  and  are  managed  with  a  skill 
almost  unparalleled.  The  sail,  usually  of  a  half  oval  shape, 
serves  the  purpose  of  an  outrigger,  and  is  used  to  windward 
or  leeward,  as  may  be  necessary.  On  the  opposite  side  a 
boom  projects,  to  steady  the  craft,  which  is  secured  to  the  top 
of  the  mast  with  guys. 

Recently,  several  small  vessels,  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty 
tons  burden,  have  been  built  by  foreigners,  to  trade  between 
the  different  islands,  and  with  the  neighboring  groups. 

(8.)  Pigs  and  fowl  in  great  numbers  are  found  here 
The  natives  are  fond  of  the  former,  but  they  prefer  selling  to 
eating  them.  There  are  no  native  quadrupeds — the  hog 
having  been  imported  ;  and  the  only  mammal  observed,  is 


1839.]  ZOOLOGY    AND    FRUITS.  213 

the  bat,  which  is  very  destructive  to  the  bread-fruit.  Cattle 
have  been  introduced  by  the  missionaries,  and  have  increased 
so  rapidly  that  vessels  can  now  be  supplied  with  fresh  beef. 
There  are  but  few  horses  in  the  group ;  yet  these  are  highly 
prized.  There  are  no  venomous  reptiles  ;  but  eels,  and  land 
and  water  snakes,  are  seen.     Turtles  are  also  quite  common. 

Frigate  birds,  boobies  and  noddies,  abound.  Tern  breed 
in  great  numbers  in  the  thickets  on  the  smaller  islands. 
Sixty  or  seventy  different  kinds  of  pigeons  are  found,  some 
of  which  are  held  sacred  and  kept  as  playthings.  The  prin- 
cipal singing  bird  is  the  philomel ;  but  the  woods  and  groves 
are  filled  with  countless  warblers,  prominent  among  which 
is  the  poe,  that  make  them  vocal  with  their  "  wordless 
melody."  » 

The  most  common  fish  are  the  mullet  and  the  lou — the 
latter  much  smaller  than  the  other.  They  are  caught  in 
casting  nets,  seines,  and  fishing  weirs.  Women  also  catch 
them  by  placing  baskets  near  the  holes  in  the  reefs,  where 
they  take  shelter.  They  are  likewise  speared  by  torchlight, 
and  taken  in  deep  water  with  a  hook. 

(9.)  Being  favored  with  a  soil  so  fertile,  and  a  climate  so 
propitious,  the  productions  of  the  Samoan  Group  are  hardly 
excelled  anywhere  within  the  tropics.  The  thick  tufts  of  the 
cocoa,  and  the  long  branching  sprays  of  the  tree-fern,  proba- 
bly cause  the  vegetation  to  appear  more  abundant  than  it 
really  is ;  but  if  these  were  removed,  a  wilderness  of  choice 
fruits  and  rich  blossoms  would  be  revealed,  to  please  the  eye 
and  gratify  the  appetite.  But  a  small  portion  of  the  land  is 
under  cultivation,  and  there  are  thousands  of  acres  unfilled, 
where  the  coffee  bush,  the  sugar  cane,  and  the  cotton  plant, 
would  thrive  luxuriantly. 

The  cultivated  trees  and  plants  are  the  bread-fruit,  cocoa- 
nut,  banana,  plantain,  ti,  paper-mulberry,  tacca,  sugar  cane, 
coffee,  ava  plant,  sweet  potato,  pine  apple,  melon,  papaya, 
yam,  taro,  lemon,  sweet  orange  and  lime.  The  manufacture 
of  sugar  from  the  cane  is  yet  in  its  infancy, — the  natives 
having  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  use  the  saccharine  matter 


214  trees.  •  [1839 

resembling  molasses,  obtained  by  baking  ti-root  in  an  oven 
and  subjecting  it  to  a  heavy  pressure.  Arrow-root  of  a  su- 
perior quality  is  made  in  limited  quantities  from  the  tacca 
The  yam,  which  is  propagated  like  the  potato — the  vines 
running  up  trees,  and  when  they  die  indicating  that  the  roots 
are  fit  to  eat — was  formerly  cultivated  a  great  deal ;  but  it 
is  now  giving  way,  in  a  measure,  to  the  taro,  which  is  thought 
to  be  preferable  by  the  natives. 

Innumerable  varieties  of  medicinal  herbs  spring  up  spon- 
taneously in  the  valleys  and  on  the  mountain  sides.  Wild 
oranges  are  so  abundant  in  some  sections  that  the  forest-paths 
are  literally  strewn  with  them.  The  cerbera,  from  which 
caoutchouc  might  be  made,  wild  nutmeg,  wild  ginger,  and 
the  iris,  abound.  The  trees  are  of  great  beauty  and  variety, 
and  are  often  hidden  beneath  dense  masses  of  ferns,  convol- 
vuli,  and  other  vines — the  rich  drapery  whose  web  and  woof 
are  supplied  by  Nature's  own  hand.  They  are  remarkable 
not  only  for  their  size,  but  also  for  the  beauty  and  fragrance 
of  their  flowers,  and  the  lusciousness  of  their  tempting  fruits. 
Evergreens  are  quite  numerous.  Indeed,  there  are  but  two 
or  three  deciduous  trees  in  the  group.  The  new  leaves  push 
out  the  old  ;  and  buds  and  blossoms,  the  young  fruit  and  the 
ripe,  appear  together  throughout  the  year. 

Among  the  trees  are  the  tamanu,  hibiscus,  pandanus,  rata, 
pisonia,  apapa,  amai,  or  miro,  tou  (cordia),  toi,  toa  {casua- 
rina),  candle-nut  (aleurites  triloba),  ohwa,  or  native  banyan, 
leafless  acacia,  bread-fruit  and  cocoa-nut.  The  most  valu- 
able of  these  for  timber,  are  the  tamanu,  amai,  tou,  toi,  toa, 
and  bread-fruit.  The  tamanu  attains  a  vast  size,  and  is 
often  five  feet  in  diameter.  It  has  a  beautiful  veiny  grain, 
and  will  take  a  high  polish.  Canoes,  stools,  pillows,  bowls, 
and  other  articles,  are  wrought  from  it  with  great  labor.  It 
would  be  extremely  useful  in  ship-  building,  as  it  is  very 
durable,  and  holds  a  nail  with  great  tenacity  :  iron  likewise 
?asts  better  in  it  than  in  any  other  wood. — The  wood  of  the 
amai  is  of  a  close  firm  texture,  and  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
It  is  but  little  variegated,  but  will  receive  a  fine  polish.     It 


1839.]  trees.  215 

is  worked  without  difficulty,  and  makes  beautiful  furniture. 
Its  leaves  were  formerly  used  in  religious  ceremonies,  and 
embassadors  invariably  carried  a  branch  of  it  as  an  emblem 
of  authority  and  of  peace,  like  the  vervain  of  the  Roman 
fecialis. 

The  tou  is  a  low  umbrageous  tree,  and  is  generally  planted 
near  the  dwellings  of  chiefs.  It  is  not  so  hard  as  rosewood, 
but  resembles  it  in  grain.  Rich  looking  furniture  is  manu- 
factured from  it ;  and  the  natives  also  use  it  in  making 
wooden  drums,  which  give  a  more  sonorous  and  mellow 
sound  than  those  made  from  the  wood  of  other  trees. — Tlw 
toi  is  of  medium  size  and  height.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
heart,  the  wood  is  of  a  blood  red  color,  but  the  outer  parts 
are  lighter  and  beautifully  waved.  It  is  like  satin  wood,  and 
is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish. — The  toa,  or  iron  wood,  is  a 
large  tree,  and  bears  a  heavy  canopy  of  graceful  foliage.  The 
wood  is  exceedingly  hard  and  durable,  and  of  a  reddish  brown 
color.  The  richly  carved  clubs  and  spears  of  the  natives  are 
made  from  it;  and  the  missionaries  have  tried,  and  proved 
it  to  be  valuable,  for  the  sheaves  of  blocks,  and  for  the  cogs 
in  their  sugar  mills  and  other  similar  articles.  A  fine  and 
rich  red  dye  may  also  be  obtained  from  the  wood  of  the  toa. 

Probably  the  bread-fruit  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the 
trees  found  in  this  group.  Besides  the  numerous  uses  to 
which  it  is  applied  in  the  Society  Islands,  a  thick  cream  is 
here  obtained  from  it,  by  puncturing,  which  hardens  when 
exposed  to  the  sun,  and,  after  being  boiled,  is  a  good  substi- 
tute for  pitch. 

The  candle-nut  tree  is  plentifully  distributed  throughout 
the  mountainous  districts,  where  its  white  shining  leaves 
contrast  finely  with  the  dark  glossy  foliage  of  the  banana  and 
bread-fruit.  This  tree  bears  an  oily  nut  of  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  of  which  domestic  candles  are  made.  A  number  of 
the  nuts,  having  their  husks  stripped  off,  are  strung  on  a  rib 
of  the  cocoa-nut  leaf,  which  is  lighted  when  required  for  use. 
Lampblack  is  likewise  prepared  from  this  nut,  as  has  been 
mentioned.     A  gum,  of  which  a  good  varnish  is  made,  is 


216  MOVEMENTS    OP    THE    SQUADRON.  [1839 

also  obtained  from  the  tree  ;  and  from  the  inner  bark,  a  juice 
is  procured,  which  is  used  instead  of  paint  oil,  and  when 
mixed  with  lampblack,  or  with  the  dye  of  the  casuarina,  be- 
comes so  permanent  that  it  cannot  be  washed  off, — differing, 
in  this  respect,  from  the  oil  of  the  cocoa-nut,  which,  when 
joined  with  paint,  does  not  dry. 

(10.)  Immediately  after  the  arrival  of  the  Squadron  in  the 
Samoan  group,  the  different  islands  were  divided  among  the 
vessels,  for  surveys  and  examinations.  An  observatory  was 
established  on  Tutuila,  and  the  head-quarters  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  Expedition  temporarily  fixed  on  that  island. 
The  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish  joined  the  Vincennes  at  Pago- 
pago,  on  the  18th  of  October,  and  were  at  once  ordered  to 
proceed  to  Upolu. 

While  the  Squadron  remained  at  these  islands,  a  fono,  or 
council,  was  held  by  the  chiefs  of  Upolu,  Manono  and  Savaii, 
at  the  request  of  Captain  Wilkes,  in  which  rules  and  regu- 
lations were  agreed  upon  and  adopted,  for  the  security  and 
protection  of  American  whalers.  A  son  of  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Williams  was  likewise  appointed  Consul  of  the  United  States, 
and  recognized  as  such  by  the  Council.  But  little  depend- 
ence, however,  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  agreement  entered 
into  at  that  time  by  the  Samoan  chiefs,  as  they  have  since 
shown,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  an  undue  readiness  to 
violate  their  most  solemn  pledges.  During  the  stay  of  the 
American  Expedition,  also,  a  native  was  tried  by  a  council 
of  chiefs,  for  murdering  an  American  citizen  twelve  months 
previous,  and  found  guilty.  He  was  in  the  first  instance 
sentenced  to  be  executed,  and  preparations  were  made  to 
carry  the  sentence  into  effect ;  but  at  the  suggestion  of  Cap- 
tains Wilkes  and  Hudson,  his  punishment  was  commuted  to 
banishment  for  life,  and  he  was  afterwards  conveyed  to  Wal- 
lis  Island,  on  board  one  of  the  vessels  of  the  Squadron,  in 
their  subsequent  passage  to  Sydney. 

All  the  islands,  with  their  harbors,  having  been  surveyed, 
—with  the  exception  of  the  south  side  of  Upolu,  which  was 
finished  by  the  Porpoise,  during  another  visit  to  the  group, 


1839.]  ARRIVAL    AT    SYDNEY.  217 

in  September,  1840, — the  whole  Squadron  assembled  at 
Apia  early  on  the  10th  of  November.  At  eleven  o'clock  in 
the  forenoon,  the  signal  was  made  to  get  under  way  ;  and  in 
a  short  time  thereafter,  all  sails  were  spread  to  catch  the  soft 
breezes  of  the  Pacific.  On  the  18th  instant,  they  entered  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  when  they  corrected  their  time,— one 
day  having  been  lost  in  doubling  Cape  Horn,  as  is  always 
the  case.  Passing  round  the  Feejee  Islands,  and  between 
them  and  the  New  Hebrides,  they  approached  the  coast  of 
New  Holland  on  the  29th  of  November,  and  at  sunset  made 
the  light  house  on  the  headland  of  Port  Jackson  bay.  Hav- 
ing a  fair  wind,  though  the  night  was  dark,  they  ran  up  to 
Sydney,  seven  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  inlet,  without  a 
pilot.  On  the  following  morning,  the  people  of  the  town,  and 
the  garrison  in  particular,  were  very  much  chagrined,  when 
they  caught  sight  of  the  stripes  and  stars  waving  over  the 
flotilla  which  had  entered  their  harbor  with  so  little  ceremony, 
unheralded  and  unannounced. 

10 


CHAPTER,    X. 

(1.)  Australia.  Discovery.  Chorography. — (2.)  Harbors.  Lakes.  Rivers. — 
(3.)  Soil.  Minerals.  Climate. — (4.)  Vegetable  Productions.  Fruits  and 
Trees. — (5.)  Birds.  Animals.  Fish. — (6.)  Aborigines.  Appearance  and 
Character. — (7.)  Native  Habitations.  Dress.  Customs  and  Superstitions. — 
(8.)  Different  Colonies  and  their  Establishment.  Government. — (9.)  Life  and 
Manners  among  the  Colonists. — (10.)  The  Convicts. — (11.)  Van  Diemen's 
Land. — (12.)  Sydney.     Other  Towns. — (13.)  Commerce  and  Manufactures. 

(1.)  New  Holland — now  more  properly  called  the  Con- 
tinent of  Australia* — was  facetiously  termed  by  Sydney 
Smith,  "  the  fifth  or  pickpocket  quarter  of  the  globe."  Not- 
withstanding there  is  full  as  much  truth  as  wit,  in  this  des- 
ignation of  the  late  reverend  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  the  great 
extent  of  this  portion  of  the  world,  the  peculiarities  of  its  soil 
and  climate,  the  riches  of  its  vegetable  and  botanical  king- 
dom, and  the  character  of  the  colonial  establishments  founded 
here  by  Great  Britain,  surround  it,  as  it  were,  with  a  deep 
and  absorbing  interest. 

The  continent  lies  between  latitude  10°  39'  and  39°  11' 
S.,  and  longitude  113°  5'  and  153°  16'  E.  Its  coast  line  is 
estimated  at  7750  miles,  within  which  is  an  area  of  three 
million  square  miles.  Its  greatest  length,  from  east  to  west, 
between  Sandy  Cape  and  Dirk  Hartog's  point,  is  twenty-four 
hundred  miles  ;  and  its  greatest  width,  from  north  to  south, 
is  a  little  short  of  two  thousand  miles. 

*  Australia  should  not  be  confounded  with  Australasia.  The  former  nam* 
( Terra  Anstralis)  was  originally  given  by  the  early  navigators,  to  what  they 
supposed  to  be  t-he  vast  Antarctic  Continent,  of  which  the  different  islands,  and 
points  of  land,  they  had  discovered  in  the  southern  ocean,  formed  parts;  but  it 
is  now  applied  to  the  continent  heretofore  known  as  New  Holland, — whereas 
Australasia  embraces  Australia,  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Cale- 
donia, New  Hebrides,  Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  Solomon's  Archipelago,  the 
Louisiades,  New  Britain,  New  Guinea,  and  New  Zealand. 


1839.]  DISCOVERY   OF    AUSTRALIA.  219 

As  early  as  1526,  a  few  accidental  discoveries  on  the  Aus- 
tralian coast  were  made  by  the  Spaniards ;  but  the  first 
accurate  information  was  obtained  by  the  Dutch  yacht 
Duyf  hen,  in  1606,  which,  while  engaged  in  exploring  the  coast 
of  New  Guinea,  discovered  that  portion  of  Australia  extending 
south  of  Endeavor  Straits,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  New 
Holland.  A  few  months  later,  Louis  de  Torres,  a  Spanish 
navigator,  passed  through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and 
made  the  northeastern  point  of  Australia,  an  account  of  which 
was  given  to  the  world  on  his  return.  From  1616  to  1628, 
various  discoveries,  of  greater  or  less  extent,  were  made  by 
the  Dutch  navigators,  Hartog,  Zeachem,  Dewitt,  and  Car- 
penter ;  in  1627,  Van  Nuyt  sailed  along  the  southern  coast 
of  Australia,  from  Cape  Leeuwin  to  Spencer's  Gulf,  to  which 
his  name  has  been  given ;  and  between  the  years  1642  and 
1644,  Tasman  completed  the  discovery  of  a  great  part  of  the 
Australian  coast  line,  and  the  island  of  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  result  of  these  discoveries  by  the  Dutch  was,  that 
about  one  half  of  the  coast  outline  of  the  continent  was  sur- 
veyed ;  but  the  information  which  they  had  obtained  was 
deemed  of  little  consequence,  and  attracted  so  little  attention, 
that  it  was  soon  more  than  half  forgotten.  At  length,  the 
English  navigators  entered  with  zeal  and  spirit  upon  the  ca- 
reer of  discovery.  Between  1684  and  1690,  Dampier  ex- 
plored a  part  of  the  west  and  northwest  coasts,  and  subse- 
quently extended  his  surveys  to  the  neighboring  islands. 
From  1763  to  1766,  Wallis  and  Carteret  were  engaged  on 
a  similar  errand,  in  the  same  quarter  of  the  world.  But  it 
was  reserved  for  the  talented,  and  indefatigable  Cook,  to  ac- 
complish more,  in  a  far  briefer  period,  than  the  united  labors 
of  all  those  who  had  preceded  him  :  he  surveyed,  in  1770, 
the  whole  eastern  coast  of  Australia,  and  was  the  first  to 
make  known  the  important  fact,  that  this  terra  incognita 
was  a  vast  island-continent. 

Shortly  after  the  return  of  Cook,  a  number  of  expeditions 
were  set  on  foot  for  exploring  the  newly  discovered  country ; 
and  in  1788  the  first  colony  arrived  there  from  England.     In 


220  GEOGRAPHICAL    FEATURES.  [1839. 

1789,  after  the  mutiny  of  the  crew  of  the  Bounty,  Captain 
Bligh  ran  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  north-eastern 
coast,  and  made  some  valuable  observations.  From  1791  to 
1793,  a  series  of  discoveries  on  the  northern  coast  were  made 
oy  Edwards,  Bligh,  Portlock,  Bampton,  and  Alt.  In  1798, 
Flinders  and  Bass  sailed  round  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and 
made  extensive  surveys  of  the  Australian  coast,  mostly  in 
open  boats.  Grant,  in  the  following  year,  explored  that  por- 
tion of  the  southern  coast  which  bears  his  name.  During 
the  five  ensuing  years,  Flinders  was  actively  engaged  in  pros- 
ecuting his  surveys  and  examinations  along  the  eastern  and 
southern  coasts  and  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria,  till,  unfortu- 
nately coming  into  collision  with  Baudin,  the  commander  of 
the  French  expedition  employed  on  the  same  coast  and  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  he  was  forcibly  taken  to  the  island  of  Mau- 
ritius and  detained  there  for  six  years.  His  discoveries  in  re- 
gard to  the  coast  outlines,  and  general  geographical  features 
of  the  new  continent,  were  of  great  value,  and  were  made 
use  of  by  the  French  authorities  without  acknowledgment. 
Since  his  time,  Captain  King,  and  other  officers  of  the  British 
navy,  have  succeeded  in  exploring  the  whole  northern  coast. 

In  its  coast  outline,  particularly  on  the  south  and  west, 
Australia  is  iron-bound,  and  almost  unbroken.  It  has  numer- 
ous large  and  small  harbors  and  inlets,  on  the  eastern  and 
northern  shores ;  Port  Phillip  on  the  south,  and  Van  Diemen's 
gulf  on  the  west,  are  spacious  harbors ;  Hervey's  bay  on  the 
east,  and  Shark's  bay  on  the  west,  are  from  forty  to  fifty 
miles  in  width  and  depth  ;  but  the  only  two  great  indenta- 
tions are  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  on  the  north,  and  Spencer's 
Gulf  on  the  south. 

From  Cape  Leeuwin  to  Spencer's  Gulf,  a  distance  of  over 
thirteen  hundred  miles,  the  southern  coast,  generally,  is  low, 
sandy  and  barren,  with  only  here  and  there  an  occasional 
eminence.  The  northern  coast  resembles  the  southern  in  this 
respect ;  but  on  the  east  and  west  coasts,  there  are  parallel 
ridges  or  ranges  of  steep  and  precipitous  mountains,  extend- 
ing northwardly  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent. 


1839.]  MOUNTAIN   RANGES.  221 

In  regard  to  the  interior  but  little  was  known  for  many  years 
after  the  establishment  of  colonies  on  the  island,  and  there 
is  probably  much  yet  to  be  learned.  A  most  remarkable  fea- 
ture in  the  coast  outline,  observed  by  all  the  navigators  who 
examined  it,  was  the  absence  of  any  outlets  for  large  rivers ; 
and  the  want  of  the  facilities  which  they  would  have  afforded, 
long  retarded,  and  has  always  obstructed,  inland  discovery. 
In  spite,  however,  of  the  numerous  obstacles  to  the  explo- 
ration of  the  interior — sustained  by  a  patience  that  was  in- 
exhaustible, and  animated  by  a  spirit  of  perseverance  that 
no  danger  or  difficulty  could  intimidate — different  parties 
have  penetrated  into  the  country  from  different  points,  and 
examined,  for  the  most  part  satisfactorily,  nearly  one-fifth  part 
of  the  whole  continent. 

Near  the  southern  coast,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Portland 
Bay,  commences  a  dark  and  rugged  mass  of  mountain  land, 
called  the  Australian  Grampians,  which  runs  clue  north  as 
far  as  latitude  36°  12'  S.,  where  a  range  of  grassy  hills,  di- 
verging to  the  north-east,  connects  it  with  the  Warragongs, 
or  Australian  Alps,  whose  lofty  peaks,  rising  to  the  height  of 
fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  are  covered 
with  eternal  snow.  The  Warragongs  are  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  Australia, — the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Grampians, 
Mount  William,  being  but  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet 
high,  and  that  of  the  Liverpool  range,  from  six  to  seven 
thousand  feet :  they  run  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  from 
the  southern  termination  of  the  continent,  near  Cape  Wilson, 
as  low  as  35°  20'  S.  In  latitude  36°  B.,  a  chain  called  the 
Blue  Mountains,  which,  in  the  early  history  of  the  colony, 
was  long  deemed  impassable,  branches  off  from  the  Warra- 
gongs, and  following  generally  the  direction  of  the  eastern 
coast,  forms  the  watershed  between  the  eastern  and  western 
streams,  and  is  finally  lost  in  the  more  elevated  Liverpool 
range,  on  the  thirty-second  parallel  of  southern  latitude. 
Mount  York,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  is  a 
little  less  than  thirty-three  hundred  feet  high.  The  Liver- 
pool range  at  first  runs  due  east,  for  sixty  or  seventy  miles ; 


222  INTERIOR   OF    THE    COUNTRY.  [1839, 

but  it  then  inclines  again  to  the  north,  and  may  be  traced  as 
far  as  latitude  26°  S. 

At  the  western  extremity  of  the  continent,  there  are  three 
parallel  mountain  ranges,  all  running  northerly  across  the 
continent.  The  easternmost  range  is  not  continuous,  but 
consists  of  two  detached  parallel  chains  extending  longitu- 
dinally, near  the  118th  meridian,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  broad  plain :  they  are  comparatively  unimportant, 
and  in  no  case  attain  a  greater  elevation  than  one  thousand 
feet.  The  second,  called  the  Darling  range,  rises  at  Cape 
Chatham,  and  runs  in  a  direct  course  to  the  northern  coast, 
opposite  Dampier's  Archipelago  :  these  mountains  are  from 
thirty  to  forty  miles  in  width,  and  their  highest  altitude  is 
about  two  thousand  feet.  The  western  chain  runs  close  to 
the  shore  from  Cape  Leeuwin,  and  is  called  Koikyennuruff 
by  the  natives ;  one  of  its  peaks,  Toolbrunup,  is  three  thou- 
sand feet  high,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  loftiest  in  West 
Australia. 

In  latitude  33°  S.,  a  series  of  irregular  mountain  spurs 
or  ranges  branch  off  to  the  west,  from  the  Blue  mountains , 
which  soon  divide  into  detached  groups ;  and  the  interior  of 
the  country,  as  far  as  has  been  explored,  appears  to  be 
studded  with  isolated  hills  and  mountains.  Some  of  these 
are  only  of  moderate  elevation,  but  others  are  of  great  height. 
The  Canobolas,  for  example,  one  of  the  detached  groups 
branching  off  from  the  Blue  mountains,  are  between  four  and 
five  thousand  feet  high. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  that  the  interior  of  the 
continent  was  one  vast  desert ;  and  this  supposition  was 
strengthened  by  the  fact,  that  the  wind  which  blew  from  that 
quarter  was  often  as  hot,  dry,  and  scorching  in  its  effects,  as 
the  African  Harmattan.  But  after  the  repeated  attempts  to 
cross  over  the  rugged  and  abrupt  wall  of  mountains  border- 
ing upon  the  coast  country,  had  at  length  proved  successful, 
and  the  remarkable  parallelism  of  the  different  ranges  was 
made  known,  it  was  thought  a  broad  expanse  of  table-land 
lay  spread  out  between  them.     This  opinion  had  scarcely 


1839.]  GEOLOGICAL    FORMATION.  223 

been  entertained,  when  the  continued  discoveries  which  were 
made,  disclosed  the  existence  of  numerous  rivers  and  streams, 
whose  courses  seemed  to  tend  towards  some  great  internal 
isea.  All  these  ideas,  however,  are  now  known  to  be  errone- 
ous. Although,  as  remarked  by  Mr.  Oxley,  in  the  narrative 
of  his  adventurous  tour,*  "  the  whole  form,  character,  and 
composition  of  this  country,  is  so  singular,  that  a  conjecture 
is  hardly  hazarded  before  it  is  overturned," — still,  it  seems 
but  reasonable  to  infer,  that  Australia,  so  far  as  it  respects 
the  interior,  is  in  an  inchoate  or  imperfect  state,  or,  in  other 
words,  yet  in  process  of  formation.  All  the  masses  of  moun- 
tain land,  and  the  detached  peaks,  between  the  great  ranges 
at  either  extremity  of  the  continent,  are  separated  by  monot- 
onous levels,  or  dead  flats,  singularly  deficient  in  vegetation, 
which  wear  every  appearance  of  having  been  recently  sub- 
merged beneath  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 

Plutonic  rocks  are  tolerably  abundant  in  the  principal 
ranges,  yet  the  interior,  though  exhibiting  so  much  that  is 
anomalous  in  character,  is  apparently  of  Neptunian  forma- 
tion. The  isolated  peaks  are  composed  of  sandstone,  and 
the  soil  of  the  flats  is  loose  and  porous,  and  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  salt.  Small  salt-lakes,  or  brine-pits,  are  very 
common  in  the  dead  levels.  These  low  grounds  are  subject 
to  inundations ;  but  they  are  by  no  means  regular,  and  are 
usually  succeeded  by  long  periods  of  drought.  Box  trees, 
polygonum,  reeds,  kangaroo  grass,  and  other  marsh  plants, 
and  trees  and  shrubs  that  delight  in  excessive  moisture, 
taking  root  in  the  soil  formed  of  the'  debris  washed  down 
from  the  high  lands,  spring  up  in  the  low  wet  places  after 
each  overflow,  live  their  brief  life,  and  wither  and  die.  Other 
plants,  to  which  the  fertilizing  slime  and  decomposing  vegeta- 
tion, though  lacking  humidity,  afford  sustenance  enough, 
now  make  their  appearance ;  stately  rows  of  yarra  trees, 
like  files  of  soldiers,  line  the  channels  of  the  rivers,  and  the 
bights  are  crowded  with  dense  thickets  of  eucalypti ;  yet  all 
these  are,  in  their  turn,  destroyed  by  the  constant  exposure 

*  Page  81. 


224  THE    UPLANDS.  [1839, 

to  too  much  water.  But  remote  from  the  streams  and 
marshes,  the  country  is,  at  all  times  and  seasons,  an  arid 
desert — barren,  dreary,  and  desolate. 

The  mountainous  districts,  on  the  contrary,  are  exceed- 
ingly rich  and  picturesque.  Deep  and  impassable  gulleys, 
generally  the  beds  of  rivers,  sometimes  three  thousand  feet 
deep, — on  either  hand  precipice  rising  above  precipice,  rocks 
piled  on  rocks,  Ossa  upon  Pelion, — intersect  the  ranges,  and 
probably  form  the  avenues  by  which  the  waters  confined  in 
lakes,  in  the  elevated  basins,  originally  escaped  through  their 
rocky  barriers  to  the  ocean.  Plains  and  valleys  are  scattered 
everywhere  amid  the  mountains,  and  grassy  hills  and  undu- 
lations, slopes  and  terraces,  lie  spread  out  on  their  flanks, 
whose  abundant  fertility  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
barrenness  of  the  low  country.  Golden  glades  interspersed 
among  the  green  holts,  mark  the  progress  of  the  settler ;  and 
the  flocks  and  herds  clambering  up  the  mountain  sides,  indi- 
cate the  certain  rewards  of  industry  and  enterprise. 

In  all  ordinary  seasons,  the  high-lying  plains  and  valleys 
are  well- watered  ;  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  streams, 
which,  when  they  leave  the  mountains,  are  rushing  and  im- 
petuous torrents,  at  their  embouchures  are  scarcely  larger 
than  mere  burns  or  brooks.  Near  the  bases  of  the  ranges, 
they  have  high  bergs,  that  protect  the  plains  bordering  upon 
them  from  the  extremes  of  drought  and  flood,  and  the  banks 
are  being  gradually  extended  by  the  process  of  formation  con- 
stantly going  on  ;  but  when  the  waters  reach  the  low  sandy 
levels,  they  spread  over  the  surface,  forming  in  the  marshes 
dank  pools,  or  tarns,  which  are  connected  together  like  the 
links  of  a  chain.  Evaporation,  under  the  vertical  sun,  soon 
diminishes  their  volume ;  the  thirsty  and  porous  soil  drinks 
up  another  large  portion  ;  and  the  remainder,  after  divers 
meanderings,  at  length  reaches  the  ocean.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  rivers  and  streamlets  of  the  interior,  whose  systems 
are  not  yet  developed,  nor  their  courses  permanently  estab- 
lished. 

If  any  reliance  may  be  placed  upon  the  appearances  which 


1839.]  HARBORS.  225 

indicate  the  recent  origin  of  the  continent,  the  theory,  or  ex- 
planation, of  its  geological  formation,  may  be  this : — The  moun- 
tain ranges  and  peaks  were  originally  islands,  and  the  spaces 
or  intervals  between  them  have  been  rilled  up  by  the  wash  of 
their  streams.  This  process  may  now  be  witnessed  in  the 
flats  of  the  interior ;  and,  if  we  may  so  speak,  we  must  wait 
for  the  complete  development  of  the  country,  until  these  are 
covered  to  a  still  greater  depth,  by  the  decayed  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  the  deposits  of  the  mountain  torrents — and  until  the 
latter,  as  rivers,  have  established  for  themselves  permanent 
channels.  There  is,  indeed,  much  to  be  done.  While  Ba- 
thurst  plains,  lying  on  the  west  of  the  Blue  mountains,  are 
nearly  two  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  coun- 
try sinks  so  rapidly  as  you  advance  to  the  westward,  that,  at 
a  distance  of  eighty  miles,  the  altitude  is  only  six  hundred 
feet.  Ages  may  elapse,  therefore,  before  the  work  will  be  ac- 
complished ;  but  Nature  is  never  idle  in  her  laboratory,  and 
the  designs  of  the  Great  Architect  must,  sooner  or  later,  be 
fulfilled. 

(2.)  From  what  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  coast  outline 
of  Australia,  it  will  readily  be  inferred,  that  there  are  few 
large  harbors.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  improper  to  place  among 
these  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  Spencer's  Gulf,  since  ves- 
sels are  as  liable  to  disasters  within  their  headlands  as  upon  the 
ocean  itself,  and  sometimes  even  more  so.  Hervey's  Bay  on 
the  eastern  coast,  and  Shark's  Bay  on  the  western,  are  ca- 
pacious natural  harbors,  being  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  in 
width  and  length,  and  have  deep  soundings.  Van  Diemen's 
Gulf,  also  on  the  western  coast,  and  Port  Phillip  on  the  south, 
may  likewise  be  ranked  among  those  of  the  largest  class.  En- 
counter Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  Murray  river,  King  George's 
Sound,  Western  Port,  and  Corner  Inlet,  are  likewise  good  har- 
bors on  the  southern  coast.  But  the  harbors  on  the  north  and 
east  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  On  the  former  coast  are 
Exmouth  Gulf,  King's  Sound,  Brunswick  Bay,  Admiralty 
Gulf,  Cambridge  Gulf,  Raffle's  Bay,  and  Port  Essington.  On 
the  east  are  Twofold  Bay,  Jervis  Bay,  Botany  Bay,  and  Port 

10* 


226  PORT  JACKSON.  [1839. 

Jackson.  The  last  is,  in  a  commercial  point  ©f  view,  of  much 
greater  importance  than  any  of  the  other  harbors  that  have 
been  mentioned.  This  magnificent  bay,  or  inlet,  is  of  irreg- 
ular form,  and  stretches  about  fifteen  miles  into  the  country. 
It  is  completely  land-looked,  and  protected  from  every  wind. 
The  anchorage  is  excellent,  its  soundings  being  more  than 
sufficient  for  the  largest  ships ;  and  the  whole  British  navy 
could  safely  ride  within  it.  Its  shores  are  indented  by  nu- 
merous small  bays  and  coves,  which  also  afford  shelter  from 
the  wind,  and  have,  in  many  cases,  good  anchoring  grounds. 
Two  gigantic  cliffs,  not  quite  two  miles  apart,  and  from  two 
hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  feet  high,  rise  on  either 
side  of  the  main  entrance  ;  upon  the  most  southerly  of  which 
is  a  lighthouse,  whose  lantern  is  elevated  sixty-seven  feet 
above  the  ground,  and  consequently,  near  three  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  above  the  sea.  The  bay  is  navigable  for  ships  of 
any  burden  seven  miles  above  Sydney. 

Besides  these  more  important  harbors,  there  are  a  great 
number  of  smaller  inlets,  and  estuaries  at  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers,  which  are  easy  of  access,  safe  and  spacious,  and  may 
one  day  become  serviceable. 

Owing  to  the  vicinage  of  the  great  dividing  ranges  to  the 
eastern  and  western  coasts,  large  rivers  cannot  accumulate  ; 
but  as  they  mostly  run  through  parallel  valleys,  the  streams 
which  are  found  at  these  two  extremities  of  the  continent, 
have  longer  courses  than  might  be  supposed.  The  rivers  on 
the  western  coast  are  neither  numerous,  nor  important ;  al- 
though burns  of  excellent  water,  many  of  which  issue  to  the 
sea  by  noble  estuaries,  are  abundant.  The  chief  streams  are 
the  Swan  and  Canning  rivers,  which  unite  in  Melville  water, 
near  the  parallel  of  32°  southern  latitude.  The  most  import- 
ant rivers  that  rise  in  the  Blue  mountains,  on  the  east,  are 
the  Murroo,  Clyde,  Shoalhaven,  Hawkesbury,  Hunter,  Has- 
tings, and  Brisbane,  which  have  their  outlets  between  the 
parallels  of  27^  and  36°  S.  The  Boyne,  a  rapid  mountain 
stream,  falls  into  Port  Curtis,  in  latitude  23°  56'  30"  S.,  and 
the  Pumice-stone  into  Moreton  Bay,  in  26°  54' 30".     Endeav- 


1839.]  RIVERS. 

or  river,  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Captain  Cook  repaired 
his  ship  after  it  had  lain  for  twenty-eight  hours  on  a  coral 
reef,  is  in  latitude  15°  27'  12"  S. :  it  has  a  wide  mouth,  easy 
of  entrance,  but,  at  a  short  distance  inland,  will  not  float  the 
smallest  boat.  The  Brisbane  is  undoubtedly  the  largest  river 
on  the  eastern  coast.  The  Shoalhaven  and  Hawkesbury 
have  fine  large  bays  at  their  mouths,  but  like  all  the  other 
rivers  mentioned,  their  currents  are  so  tortuous  that  they  pos- 
sess few  facilities  for  internal  navigation.  The  Hawkesbury 
carries  off  much  the  greater  share  of  the  rain  that  falls  on  the 
eastern  face  of  the  Blue  mountains  ;  its  two  most  important 
tributaries,  the  Grose  and  Cox,  issue  directly  from  this  range, 
through  ravinesinthe  sand-stone  rocks,*  of  from  one  to  thirty- 
four  hundred  feet  in  depth  ;  and  the  Nepean,  the  only  other 
principal  affluent,  runs  along  the  base  of  the  same  chain  from 
fifty  to  sixty  miles.  The  current  of  this  stream  is  laggard, 
not  usually  exceeding  two  miles  per  hour,  and  it  is  subject  to 
inundations.  Its  banks  are  near  thirty  feet  high ;  but  the 
water,  in  a  freshet,  sometimes  rises  as  high  as  ninety  feet, 
and  spreads  over  a  great  extent  of  country.  The  floods  occur 
as  often,  upon  an  average,  as  once  in  three  years,  frequently 
in  the  midst  of  harvest,  when  houses  and  barns,  crops  and 
herds,  are  suddenly  swept  to  destruction  by  the  rushing 
waters. 

The  Paramatta  river,  which  enters  Port  Jackson,  is  but  a 
small  stream,  and  is  navigable  for  steamers,  only,  sixteen 
miles  above  Sydney,  where  the  tide  ceases  to  flow. 

Between  longitude  124°  53' E.  and  the  135th  meridian,  on 
the  northern  coast,  are  the  Prince  Regent,  Roe,  Hunter,  Al- 
ligator, and  Liverpool  rivers.  The  first  three  flow  between 
rocky  and  precipitous  hills,  from  three  to  four  hundred  feet 
high  ;  and  the  others  wind  their  way  lazily  through  muddy 
flats,  and  sandy  and  monotonous  levels.  All  are  full  and 
wide  streams,  and  enter  the  ocean  by  vast  estuaries,  in  which 

*  It  is  computed  that  a  mass  of  rock  equal  to  134  cubic  miles,  must  have  been 
displaced  by  the  Cox,  and  nearly  the  same  quantity  by  the  Grose,  in  opening 
their  way  to  the  ocean. 


228  THE    MURRAY.  [1839. 

the  tide  often  rises  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet ;  but  the  lar- 
gest of  them,  the  Prince  Regent,  is  not  navigable  for  boats 
more  than  fifty  miles  from  its  mouth,  including  all  its  tortu- 
osities. On  the  southern  coast  are  the  Blackwood,  which 
falls  into  Flinder's  Bay  near  the  115th  meridian,  and  the 
Kalgan,  or  French  river,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
further  east,  which  debouches  into  Oyster  Harbor,  the  north 
part  of  King  George's  Sound.  About  sixteen  miles  east  of 
Cape  Northumberland,  is  the  mouth  of  the  Glenelg,  one  of 
the  largest  coast  rivers  in  Australia:  its  source  is  in  the 
Grampians,  seventy  miles  from  the  sea ;  it  has  numerous  af- 
fluents, and,  counting  its  windings,  is  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  miles  in  length  ;  it  presents  a  narrow  outlet 
to  the  sea,  the  entrance  of  which  is  choked  up  by  sand-bars, 
but  it  soon  expands,  and,  with  this  exception,  is  a  wide  and 
deep  stream  throughout  its  whole  course. 

There  is  no  other  river  of  importance  on  the  southern 
coast,  except  the  Murray,  which  rises  in  the  Warragongs,. 
and  empties  into  Encounter  Bay,  in  longitude  139°  E.  At 
ite  mouth  it  appears  to  be  an  insignificant  stream,  but,  in 
fact,  it  includes  within  its  basin  an  area  of  more  than  four 
hundred  thousand  square  miles,  and  carries  off  the  surplus 
waters  of  a  great  number  of  the  rivers  of  the  interior,  whose 
systems,  as  has  been  before  remarked,  are  yet  undeveloped. 
Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Macquarrie,  Lachlan,  Mor- 
rumbidgee,  and  Darling.  The  first  two  are  formed  by  the 
torrents  descending  the  western  face  of  the  Blue  mountains, 
and,  in  their  progress  to  the  interior,  diverge,  near  the  149th 
meridian, — the  Lachlan  stretching  to  the  north-west,  and  the 
Macquarrie  pursuing  a  more  northerly  course.  Both  are 
large  rivers, — the  Macquarrie  being  sometimes  capable  of 
floating  a  ship  of  the  line,  within  one  hundred  miles  of  its 
source.  The  Lachlan  is  more  than  twelve  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  the  Macquarrie  from  seven  to  eight  hundred. 
The  Morrumbidgee  rises  in  the  Warragongs,  and  after  run- 
ning a  tortuous  westerly  course,  for  not  less  than  one  thou- 
sand miles,  joins  the  Murray  in  latitude  34°  45'  S.  and  Ion- 


1839.]  lakes.  229 

gitude  143°  23'  E.,  having  previously  received  the  waters  of 
the  Lachlan.  The  Darling  is  a  most  singular  stream ;  its 
waters  being  in  some  places  brackish,  then  becoming  sweet, 
and,  still  further  below,  again  impregnated  with  salt :  it  is 
formed  by  the  Gwydir,  Dumaresq,  and  Castlereagh,  all  large 
streams,  and  other  affluents  of  considerable  size,  whose 
sources  are  north  of  the  Liverpool  range  ;  it  describes,  in  its 
course,  a  curved  line,  upwards  of  one  thousand  miles  long, 
inclosing  all  the  country  west  of  the  Blue  mountains ;  and, 
being  joined  by  the  Macquarrie,  finally  unites  with  the  Mur- 
ray near  the  142d  meridian,  in  latitude  34°  7'  S. 

After  receiving  the  Darling,  the  Murray,  which  has  al- 
ready traversed  over  fifteen  hundred  miles  from  its  remote 
source  in  the  Warragongs,  continues  on  to  Lake  Alexan- 
dria, which  communicates  by  a  narrow  outlet  with  En- 
counter Bay, — a  further  distance,  inclusive  of  the  numerous 
windings,  of  fifteen  hundred  miles.  Notwithstanding  it  has 
so  many  tributary  streams,  this  river  loses  so  much  of  its 
waters,  like  its  affluents,  by  absorption  and  evaporation, 
that  it  is  neither  wide  enough  nor  deep  enough  to  admit  of 
navigation ;  and,  in  addition,  its  mouth  is  defended  by  a 
double  line  of  breakers,  whose  foam  extends  from  one  end  of 
the  bay  to  the  other. 

Lakes  are  abundant  in  Australia,  but  no  very  large  ones 
have  so  far  been  discovered.  Lake  Alexandrina  is  the  largest, 
and  is  fifty  miles  long  and  forty  wide ;  yet,  it  is  so  shallow, 
in  many  places,  that  it  cannot  float  even  a  boat.  In  1828, 
there  was  a  fine  sheet  of  water,  called  Lake  George,  seven- 
teen miles  long  and  seven  miles  wide,  in  35°  5'  southern  lati- 
tude, and  longitude  149°  15'  E.;  but,  in  1836,  its  site  was 
a  grassy  plain.  All  the  lakes  of  the  interior  are  subject  to 
the  same  variation.  They  abound,  however,  along  the 
courses  of  the  rivers.  The  waters  of  some  are  sweet,  of 
others  brackish.  None  of  them  have  any  outlet :  a  very  few 
are  entirely  isolated ;  but  the  most  are  reservoirs  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  surplus  waters  of  the  neighboring  streams, 
with  which  they  communicate. 


230  SOIL    AND    MINERALS.  [1839. 

(3.)  Fertility  is  mainly  confined  to  the  higher  parts  of 
rivers,  and  not,  as  in  other  countries,  to  their  lower  valleys. 
The  mountain  plains  and  elevated  terraces,  and  the  sides 
and  summits  of  the  hills,  near  the  great  ranges,  are  covered 
with  a  highly  productive,  dry,  vegetable  soil.  The  desolate 
levels  of  the  interior  are  either  composed  of  a  red  tenacious 
clay,  or  of  a  dark  hazel-colored  loam,  rotten  and  full  of  holes. 
In  the  coast  country  the  soil  is  a  black  mould,  mixed  with  a 
clean  white  sand.  The  latter  is  so  plentiful  that  it  affects 
the  vegetation  in  dry  weather,  and  large  quantities  of  it  are 
imported  from  Sydney  to  England,  for  the  manufacture  of 
glass. 

The  connected  ranges  are  mainly  composed  of  granite, 
with  a  thick  overlying  stratum  of  ferruginous  sandstone.  In 
the  Blue  mountains  the  former  is  rarely  seen,  except  in  the 
valleys  and  beds  of  streams,  when  it  has  cracked  the  upper 
stratum.  Limestone  is  not  often  met  with  in  Australia  :  it 
has  been  found  in  a  district  west  of  the  Blue  mountains,  and 
in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent,  but  in  no  case  presents 
any  conclusive  appearance  of  stratification.  Trap  occurs 
quite  often,  though  its  location,  with  reference  to  that  of 
other  rocks,  cannot  be  assigned.  Vesicular  lava  is  abundant 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  Napier,  an  extinct  volcano 
lying  between  the  Grampians  and  the  southern  coast,  called 
by  the  natives,  Murcoa.*  In  a  low  range  called  Wingen,  a 
little  south  of  the  Liverpool  range,  there  is  a  bituminous 
burning  hill,  composed  of  a  great  variety  of  rocks :  this  con- 
tains, in  close  proximity,  clay,  shale,  argillaceous  sandstone, 
feldspar,  basalt,  ironstone,  trap,  and  hornblende,  while  the 
adjacent  peaks  are  chiefly  porphyritic. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  perceived,  that,  al- 
though all  the  usual  formations  are  found  in  this  remarkable 
country,  they  occur  without  order,  and  in  defiance  of  the  es- 
tablished laws  of  geology.  It  is  not  safe,  therefore,  amid  so 
many  anomalies,  to  affirm,  that  the  mountainous  strata  are 
not  metallifferous ;  yet  the  indications  strongly  warrant  the 

*  This  is  the  only  volcano  which  has  so  far  been  discovered  in  Australia. 


1839.]  CLIMATE.  231 

presumption,  that  they  are  destitute  of  the  more  precious 
metals.  Copper  has  been  found  in  the  Blue  mountains  and 
the  Darling  range ;  and  traces  of  lead,  occasionally  mixed 
with  fcilver  and  arsenic,  have  been  observed  in  the  same  local- 
ities. Alum  and  plumbago  are  likewise  tolerably  plentiful. 
Of  gems,  only  rock  crystals,  topazes,  garnets,  and  agates, 
have  yet  been  met  with.  But  iron  and  coal, — the  former, 
in  many  respects,  the  most  valuable  of  metals,  and  the  latter 
the  most  useful  of  fossils,— exist  in  profuse  abundance.  Iron 
is  spread  over  the  whole  continent,  and  the  oxide  is  so  abund- 
ant on  the  northern  coast,  that  several  of  the  mountains  vio- 
lently affect  the  magnetic  needle.  Coal-fields  of  immense 
extent  lie  beneath  the  barren  sandstone,  and  in  the  Blue 
mountains  and  the  Darling  range,  which  occur  in  nearly 
horizontal  strata,  and  are  rarely  more  than  eighteen  fathoms 
below  the  surface. 

Not  far  from  one-third  of  the  Australian  continent  is  in  the 
torrid  zone.  The  climate  of  the  southern,  or  extra-tropical 
portion,  is  said  to  assimilate  very  closely  to  that  of  the  lower 
half  of  the  Italian  peninsula ;  but  the  average  heat  is  less, 
and  the  extremes  of  temperature  greater.  The  atmosphere, 
also,  is  considerably  more  arid,  and  the  thermometer  falls 
with  much  greater  rapidity  as  you  ascend  the  mountains. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  rather  above  65°  at 
Sydney,  about  63°  at  Paramatta,  67i°  at  Perth,  and  60^°  at 
King  George's  Sound.  The  seasons  are  distinctly  marked. 
The  mean  heat  during  the  summer  months,  (December,  Jan- 
uary, and  February,)  is  about  80°  at  noon,  on  the  southern 
coast ;  but  this  is  tempered  by  the  sea  breeze,  which  blows 
freshly,  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  about  sunset. 
During  the  three  autumn  months,  (March,  April,  and  May,) 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  55°  at  midnight  to  75°  at  noon. 
In  the  coast  districts,  during  the  winter  months,  (June,  July, 
and  August,)  the  mean  temperature  at  daylight  is  from  40° 
to  50°,  and  at  noon  from  55°  to  60°.  Frost  occurs  here  but 
rarely,  and  though  snow  sometimes  falls,  it  never  lies  upon 
the  ground ;  yet  the  mornings  and  evenings  are  chilly,  and 


232  TROPICAL    AUSTRALIA.  [1839. 

the  nights  comparatively  cold.  Further  inland,  the  cold  is 
more  excessive ;  hoar  frosts  are  frequent  and  severe ;  heavy- 
falls  of  snow  are  common,  and  the  upper  flats  and  downs 
often  remain  covered  for  several  days.  In  the  spring  months, 
(September,  October,  and  November,)  the  thermometer  varies 
from  60°  to  70°. 

But  there  is  little  to  relieve  the  aridity  of  the  climate  in 
the  interior,  where  the  heat  is  insupportable,  alike  in  seasons 
of  flood  as  in  those  of  drought ;  and  there  is  nothing  pecu- 
liar in  the  climatic  phenomena  of  this  desert  region,  unless 
it  be,  that  when  the  coast  country  is  inundated  with  rain,  it 
is  invariably  the  season  of  dry  weather  here, — and  that  the 
converse  is  also  true.  On  the  coast,  May  is  the  wet  season ; 
but  in  the  interior,  the  rains  fall  between  September  and 
February. 

Tropical  Australia  is  by  no  means  so  well  known  as  the 
southern  portion  of  the  continent;  but  sufficient  facts  have 
been  ascertained  to  render  it  quite  certain,  that  its  climate 
does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  other  parts  of  the  world 
similarly  situated.  Running  water  is  scarce,  and  a  large  share 
of  the  country  is  burned  up  with  the  intense  heat.  On  the 
northern  coast,  the  temperature  is  sometimes  suddenly  raised 
by  the  scorching  winds  from  the  interior.  These  hot  fiery 
blasts  are,  fortunately,  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  av- 
erage.temperature  at  Melville  Island  is  83°  ;  the  extreme  av- 
erage being  75°  in  July,  and  87°  in  December.  The  coolest 
part  of  the  day  is  about  six  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The 
Indian  monsoons  are  irregular  in  their  recurrence,  often  vary- 
ing more  than  a  month.  The  north-western,  or  summer  mon- 
soon, usually  sets  in  early  in  November ;  and  the  south-east- 
ern about  the  first  of  April.  During  the  prevalence  of  the 
summer  monsoon,  there  are  heavy  falls  of  rain,  yet  these  sel- 
dom continue  above  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time,  and  rarely 
interrupt  out-door  labor.  From  June  to  September,  there  is 
no  rain,  but  this  is  the  healthiest  part  of  the  year.  "While 
the  dry  monsoon  prevails,  the  atmosphere  is  exceedingly 
moist ;  so  much  so,  that  iron  articles  are  with  difficulty  kept 


1839.]  WET    AND   DRY   SEASONS.  233 

from  rusting ;  and  the  exposed  surfaces  of  the  rocks  along  the 
coast  are  coated  over  with  the  oxide  of  iron. 

Periods,  or  cycles,  often  or  twelve  years  duration,  distinctly 
mark  the  division  of  the  Australian  climate  into  wet  and 
dry.  In  the  course  of  each  cycle,  there  is  ordinarily  one  year 
of  unmitigated  drought,  during  which  no  rain  falls,  whose  ef- 
fects are  visible,  as  well  in  the  mountains  and  fells  of  the  ele- 
vated regions,  as  in  the  boggy  marshes  and  desert  flats  of  the 
interior — as  well  in  the  sandy  plains  along  the  southern  coast, 
as  in  the  jungles  of  tropical  Australia.  This  dry  season  is 
followed  by  a  year  of  freshets  and  floods  :  the  rains  are  then 
incessant,  but  they  diminish  in  number  and  quantity,  in  each 
succeeding  year,  until  the  dry  epoch  again  recurs.  It  is  only 
in  the  years  intervening  between  these  two  extremes,  that 
the  regular  transitions  from  one  season  to  another,  before 
hinted  at,  are  observable. 

Dews  are  abundant  at  all  seasons,  and  especially  so  in  the 
summer,  and  during  the  long  droughts.  Earthquakes  are 
not  common  except  on  the  northern  coast,  where  they  are  oc- 
casionally felt.  Hail  storms  often  occur,  and  thunder  and 
lightning  are  likewise  frequent.  Sometimes  a  brilliant  dis- 
play of  the  most  vivid  electricity  may  be  witnessed  for  a  suc- 
cession of  days, — flash  following -close  upon  flash,  with  but 
brief  intermissions,  and  unaccompanied  by  either  thunder  or 
rain.  In  the  sandy  districts  a  singular  phenomenon  is  often 
witnessed.  Tall  columns  of  dust,  or  whirlwinds,  twenty  feet 
broad,  and  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  high,  may  be 
seen  moving  along  in  stately  procession,  striding  majestically, 
like  giant  spirits,  over  brook  and  plain,  with  the  speed  of  a 
race  horse.  At  Sydney,  these  dust  winds,  or  "  brick-field- 
ers," as  they  are  called,  are  a  great  source  of  annoyance; 
and  though  doors  and  windows  are  always  carefully  closed 
when  they  are  seen  approaching,  everything  in  the  house 
is  sure  to  be  covered  with  the  thick,  fine  powder,  which  pene- 
trates through  the  smallest  crevice. 

Were  this  not  a  country  of  singularities,  the  inference  fairly 
deducible  from  the  facts  which  have  been  detailed,  would  be, 


234  diseases.  [1839. 

that  the  climate  of  Australia  was  prejudicial  to  the  human 
constitution;  but  it  is,  in  reality,  highly  favorable,  for  the 
reason,  probably,  that  as  the  vegetation  is  so  scanty,  the  at- 
mosphere is  but  little  tainted  by  the  miasma  formed  by  its 
decomposition.  Deaths  from  disease  are  very  rare ;  and  all 
disorders,  even  the  worst  cases  of  syphilis,  soon  yield  to  the 
simplest  remedies.  Endemic  diseases  are  not  at  all  common  ; 
and  small-pox,  measles,  and  hooping-cough,  are  almost  un- 
known. Dysentery  is  the  most  prevalent  complaint.  Chil- 
dren suffer  considerably  from  the  presence  of  the  teres,  or 
round  worm.  Ophthalmia  is  often  produced  at  the  south  by 
the  hot  dusty  winds  from  the  interior.  It  may  be  said  to  be 
unhealthy  within  the  tropics,  but  it  is  certainly  less  so  than  in 
other  countries  lying  in  the  same  latitude.  Typhus  and  acute 
fevers  prevail  there  during  the  wet  monsoons ;  and  in  the  sea- 
son of  the  variable  winds,  pectolapia,  or  moon-blindness,  su- 
persedes ophthalmia.  Scurvy  also  appears  to  be  endemic  on 
the  northern  coast,  and  manifests  itself  with  peculiar  viru- 
lence where  the  tropical  heat  is  exercised  full  upon  the  damp 
soil.  But  even  in  these  warm  latitudes,  though  disease  is  far 
from  being  a  stranger,  it  generally  puts  on  a  mild  form,  and 
is  easily  subdued. 

(4.)  Peculiar  as  are  the  geology  and  climate  of  Australia, 
it  might  be  expected  that  the  vegetable  creation  would  pre- 
sent appearances  equally  wonderful.  Nature  seems  here  to 
have  escaped  from  her  leading  strings,  and  displayed  the  pow- 
ers of  a  giant.  Discarding  the  customary  shapes  in  which 
she  appears  in  the  old  world,  she  develops  herself  in  new  and 
unwonted  forms.  The  humble  grasses  that  carpet  our  plains 
and  valleys,  here  collect  in  tall  clumps  and  tussocks,  as  if  too 
proud  to  spread  themselves  over  the  earth,  for  man  or  beast 
to  tread  upon  with  impunity ;  and  the  pretty  honeysuckle 
that  shelters  or  conceals  the  prairie  home  of  the  American  set- 
tler, or  twines  its  graceful  tendrils  around  the  porch  of  the 
peasant's  cottage  in  merry  England,  rears  itself  in  stately 
majesty  among  the  other  denizens  of  the  Australian  forests, 
and  disdains  either  to  give  protection,  or  to  ask  it  in  return. 


1839.]  BOTANY.  235 

The  fruits,  too,  are  singular,  as  well  in  form  as  in  their  attri- 
butes ;  and  what  are  simple  shrubs  in  other  climes,  attain  a 
wondrous  growth  ;  while  the  monarchs  of  the  wood  are  Ti- 
tans in  stature,  and  of  gigantic  girth.  But,  what  is  stranger 
still,  all  the  trees,  with  a  single  exception,  possess  one  of  the 
gifts  of  perpetual  youth,  and  rejoice  in  a  foliage  that  never 
fades  or  perishes,  but  is  always  green. 

Botany  Bay,  it  will  be  remembered,  received  its  name  from 
the  abundant  vegetation  discovered  on  its  shores,  by  Captain 
Cook  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  After  their  return,  and  the  pub- 
lication of  their  animated  descriptions  of  the  floral  beauties 
they  had  witnessed,  general  attention  was  instantly  attracted 
to  the  country,  and  the  most  extravagant  expectations  were 
formed  in  regard  to  its  productiveness.  Those  who  subse- 
quently visited  it,  for  purposes  of  colonization,  and  from  sci- 
entific motives,  saw  much  to  charm  and  interest ;  but  a  care- 
ful examination  disclosed  comparatively  little  of  what  was 
really  useful  and  beneficial.  The  copses  of  palm,  the  jungle 
patches  and  mangrove  thickets,  of  tropical  Australia,  and  the 
wide  reaches  of  scrub  along  the  southern  coast,  afforded  a  pic- 
turesque and  pleasing  contrast  to  the  dark  waves  of  magni- 
ficent vegetation  creeping  up  the  sides  of  the  Blue  Mountains 
and  the  Warragongs,  and  mingling  their  rich  emerald  dyes 
with  the  brilliant  azure  of  the  o'erarching  heavens  ;  yet  some- 
thing more  than  mere  beauty  of  scenery  was  requisite,  as  was 
well  remarked  by  Governor  Phillip,  in  his  account  of  the  first 
attempt  at  colonization,  "  in  a  place  where  the  permanent 
residence  of  multitudes  was  to  be  established." 

There  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  primary  orders  of  plants  in  Australia.  Of  the  crypto- 
gamia,  there  are  about  seven  hundred  species,  less  than  one- 
third  of  which  are  common  to  this  and  other  countries. 
There  are  nearly  twelve  hundred  monocotyledons,  only  forty 
of  which  are  found  in  other  regions  ;  and  out  of  almost  four 
thousand  different  species  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  there  are 
but  twenty  which  are  not  peculiar  to  Australia.  It  will 
thus  be  seen,  that  Australia  contains,  as  peculiar  to  herself, 


236  GRAINS    AND    FRUITS.  [1839. 

not  quite  one-fifth  part  of  all  the  species  of  plants  in  the 
known  world ;  and  if  their  utility  only  equalled  their  variety, 
she  would,  indeed,  be  a  paradise.  But  so  far  from  this  be- 
ing the  case,  there  is,  in  reality,  a  deficiency  of  native  fruits 
and  vegetables,  adapted  for  human  food,  without  parallel  on 
the  globe. 

Of  the  cerealia  there  is  not  a  single  species  indigenous  to 
the  country ;  the  only  substitute  for  them  being  a  kind  of 
reed,  which  the  early  settlers  found  to  make  very  light  and 
palatable  cakes.  But  since  its  colonization,  every  species  of 
grain — wheat,  rye,  Indian  corn,  barley  and  oats — has  been 
introduced  into  Australia,  and  is  now  cultivated  with  suc- 
cess, though  the  crops  are  far  more  liable  to  fail  here  than 
they  are  in  more  equable  climates.  The  yield  of  wheat 
ranges  from  ten  to  forty  bushels  per  acre, — the  greatest 
quantity  being  obtained  on  the  low  grounds.  The  kernel  is 
large  and  plump,  and  the  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  the 
best  quality  is  sixty-two  pounds. 

Grasses  of  all  kinds  are  abundant  and  highly  nutritious ; 
but  these,  like  the  numerous  ferns  and  nettles,  and  many 
varieties  of  flowers,  have  the  form  and  habits  of  trees,  and 
grow  in  detached  clumps,  and  not  in  a  continuous  sward. 
The  only  native  fruits  are  raspberries,  currants,  a  species  of 
cherry,  one  or  two  tasteless  fruits,  and  a  nut  deservedly 
held  in  small  estimation.  The  currants  are  much  like  cran- 
berries in  form  and  appearance  ;  but  the  Australian  cherry  is 
a  most  singular  monstrosity.  It  grows  on  a  large  bush  ;  the 
fruit  consisting  of  a  spongy  pulp,  that  shrinks  a  good  deal 
when  fully  ripe,  on  the  outside  of  which,  contrary  to  the 
usual  order  of  things,  and  firmly  adhering  to  it,  is  the  stone 
or  pit.  Of  the  tasteless  fruits,  the  wooden  pear  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable :  it  is  the  product  of  a  low  shrub,  and,  in 
outward  appearance,  resembles  the  rich  fruit  of  the  same 
name  which  we  prize  so  highly ;  but,  within,  it  is  as  hard  as 
lignum  vitae.  When  this  plant  was  first  discovered,  it  occa- 
sioned the  remark  concerning  Australia,  that  it  was  a  strange 


V339.]  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  237 

country,  indeed,  since  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  its  trees  were 
of  wood,  and  the  wood  itself  like  stone. 

Among  the  natural  productions  are  flax,  tares,  indigo, 
chicory,  trefoil,  and  burnet, — the  last  a  first-rate  substitute 
for  tea ;  and  nearly  all  the  useful  fruits  and  vegetables  of 
other  lands  have  now  been  acclimatized.  Of  the  foreign 
fruits,  the  orange,  lemon,  citron,  date,  pomegranate,  almond, 
filbert,  nectarine,  apricot,  peach,  plum,  English  cherry,  fig, 
mulberry,  olive,  quince,  granadilla,  banana,  guava,  pine- 
apple, water  and  musk-melon,  strawberry,  grape,  and  chiri- 
moya,  are  quite  plentiful  in  the  older  and  more  thickly  popu- 
lated districts.  Except  in  tropical  Australia,  the  oranges, 
citrons,  and  lemons,  are  not  so  large  or  luscious  as  in  their 
native  climates  ;  the  trees  present  a  scraggy  appearance,  and 
the  velvety  green  of  the  foliage  is  changed  into  a  pale  sickly 
yellow  by  the  dry  cutting  winds.  The  stone  fruits  thrive 
well,  but  they  are  not  very  rich  in  flavor.  Peaches  and  apri- 
cots are  so  abundant  in  New  South  Wales  that  hogs  are  fat- 
tened on  them ;  and  a  quart  of  green  gages,  or  a  pound  of 
delicious  grapes,  is  often  sold,  in  the  season,  for  an  English 
penny. 

All  the  most  valuable  vegetables, — such  as  potatoes,  car- 
rots, turnips,  beets,  parsneps,  pumpkins,  squashes,  cabbages, 
broccoli,  cauliflower,  tomatoes,  celery,  lettuce,  capsicum, 
(Guinea  pepper),  asparagus,  spinach,  egg-plant,  capers,  arti- 
chokes, radishes,  and  pulse, — are  likewise  very  common  in  the 
settlements. 

Tobacco  is  a  native  production,  but  it  is  extremely  liable 
to  be  nipped  by  the  frequent  frosts.  In  other  respects  it  suc- 
ceeds admirably,  and  with  good  culture  yields  a  profitable 
crop. 

Great  attention,  of  late  years,  has  been  paid  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  grape,  for  which  the  climate  is  decidedly  favor- 
able. Numerous  varieties  of  foreign  grapes  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  liberal  premiums  have  been  offered  by  the  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  New  South  Wales,  for  the  best  specimens 
of  native  wines. 


238  TROPICAL    PLANTS.  [1839. 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  New  South  Wales,  and  other 
districts  in  southern  Australia,  to  cultivate  the  cotton  plant, 
but  without  much  success.  The  soil  and  climate  of  the 
Cobourg  peninsula,  on  the  north,  and  the  tropical  portion  of 
Australia  generally,  are  well  adapted,  however,  to  its  growth. 
Indeed,  no  other  description  of  produce  promises  so  well  in 
this  section  of  the  continent :  if  the  seed  is  sown  at  the 
proper  season,  the  plants  come  forward  rapidly,  and  arrive  at 
maturity  just  after  the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  when  the 
long  period  of  dry  weather  which  ensues,  affords  ample  time 
and  opportunity  for  gathering  the  crop  without  any  liability 
to  be  injured  by  moisture. 

The  coffee  bush  has  been  tried  in  northern  Australia,  but 
the  attempt  to  cultivate  it  proved  a  decided  failure.  This 
plant  delights  in  a  volcanic  soil,  and  will  not  flourish  else- 
where. Yet  it  is  remarked,  that  the  peculiar  aspect  of  Aus- 
tralian vegetation  disappears,  in  some  measure,  in  that  portion 
of  the  continent  within  the  tropics ;  the  greater  number  of 
those  plants  common  to  other  countries  are  found  here  ;  and 
the  trees  and  shrubs  assimilate  more  nearly  to  those  seen  in 
India.  Chili  pepper  has  been  tried  with  success,  and  the 
round  pepper  would,  undoubtedly,  thrive  equally  as  well. 
Spices,  too,  when  planted  under  the  shade  of  the  forest  trees, 
like  the  nutmeg  bush  at  Banda,  grow  vigorously,  and  bear 
an  abundant  product.  The  sugar-cane,  and  almost  all  other 
tropical  productions,  would,  in  like  manner,  thrive  in  the 
lower  latitudes  of  the  north ;  and  when  this  portion  of  the 
country  becomes  more  thickly  settled  than  it  now  is,  its  hith- 
erto untried  capabilities  will  be  shown  fully  to  equal  the  ex- 
pectations of  those  who  may  test  them,  if  any  reliance  what- 
soever may  be  placed  on  the  appearance  of  the  soil,  and  the 
character  of  the  climate. 

One  who  is  familiar  with  the  forest  scenery  of  Brazil  will 
not  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  marked  resemblance  of  the 
Australian  woods.  Here,  also,  there  is  an  almost  entire 
absence  of  underbrush,  and  the  trees  are  rarely  set  so  close 
as  to  impede  travelling,  either  on  horseback  or  in  a  carriage ; 


1839.]  AUSTRALIAN   FORESTS.  239 

though,  strangely  enough,  they  are  usually  the  most  abund- 
ant on  inferior  soils.  Except  in  the  tropical  districts,  how- 
ever, there  are  few  or  no  woody  vines,  or  parasitic  plants ; 
but  where  they  are  found,  their  growth  is  most  luxuriant. 
Scandent  pipers,  wild  bignonias  and  passion-flowers,  and 
vines  whose  foliage  and  blossoms  are  of  various  hues,  are 
trailed  along  the  mangrove  bushes,  and  cling  to  the  tali 
palms  of  northern  Australia,  whose  fan-like  branches  seem 
to  incline  downwards,  as  if  rejoicing  to  lift  them  up  into  the 
bright  sunshine  that  smiles  above  them.  Tree-ferns,  of  dif- 
ferent varieties,  are  scattered  all  over  the  country ;  and  the 
grass  tree  (xanthorrhcea  hastilis),  presenting  when  in  flower 
a  most  gorgeous  sight,  is  frequently  seen.  Flowering  and 
aromatic  plants,  of  great  beauty  and  powerful  odor,  are  found 
in  abundance.  On  the  sandy  soils  grow  numerous  prickly 
shrubs,  which  bind  them  down,  and  prevent  their  drifting. 
The  lily,  the  tulip,  and  the  honeysuckle  exist  here,  but  they 
are  standard  trees  of  enormous  size,  and  incomparable  beauty. 
Of  acacias  there  is  no  end,  either  in  number  or  variety  ;  but 
the  palms  are  limited  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  continent. 
Nearly  all  the  timber  is  of  the  hard- wood  kind.  It  is  gen- 
erally of  greater  specific  gravity  than  water,  but  is  liable  to 
rot  at  the  heart,  and  is  so  contractile  that  it  has  been  known 
to  shrink  upwards  of  two  inches  within  a  week  ;  conse- 
quently, its  usefulness  to  the  architect  is  very  much  im- 
paired. All  the  varieties  of  eucalyptus  and  casuarina  grow 
here,  together  with  different  species  of  rose-wood,  sandal- 
wood, mountain  ash,  apple,  sallow,  turpentine  wood,  cedar, 
and  pine.  Most  of  the  eucalypti  are  called  gum  trees, — 
there  being  the  blue  gum,  gray  gum,  iron,  flooded  gum,  and 
black-butted  gum  ;  but  in  some  instances  this  is  a  misnomer  ; 
for  the  exudations  of  many  of  the  trees  are  not  properly 
gums,  but  resins,  and  are  insoluble  in  water.  Some  of  them, 
too,  yield  a  fine  and  pure  manna,  and  others  the  very  best 
gum  Arabic.  The  foliage  possesses  powerful  aromatic  prop- 
erties, and  resembles  that  of  the  camphor  tree  in  taste. 
Boards  and  plank  are  made  from  these  trees,  and  some  of  the 


240  trees.  [1839. 

varieties  are  used  in  fencing  and  ship-building.  The  pine  is 
equal  to  maple,  and  is  used  for  cabinet  work.  The  white 
cedar  [melia  cozedarach)  is  the  only  deciduous  tree  yet 
known:  it  attains  a  vast  size,  and  is  used  for  making  shin- 
gles and  cabinet  work.  The  she-oak,  and  swamp  oak,  are 
applied  to  the  same  purposes,  and  the  turpentine  wood  is  made 
use  of  in  boat-building.  There  is  another  valuable  tree, 
called  the  miniosa,  or  black  wattle,  the  bark  of  which  is  ex- 
ported to  England  for  tanning. 

Of  the  medicinal  trees,  the  peppermint,  sassafras,  and  cas- 
tor-oil tree,  are  the  most  conspicuous.  The  timber  of  the  first 
two  is  also  held  in  considerable  estimation.  There  is  also  a 
tree  called  the  tea-tree,  the  leaves  of  which  are  used  instead 
of  those  of  the  Chinese  plant,  and  make  a  very  potable  bev- 
erage. 

An  unusually  large  growth  is  characteristic  of  all  the  Aus- 
tralian trees,  except  in  the  deserts  of  the  interior,  where 
clumps  of  stunted  bushes  are  sometimes  seen,  and  the  occa- 
sional tracts  in  the  coast  country,  which  are  covered  with 
dwarf  shrubs,  known  among  the  colonists  by  the  name  of 
"  scrub." 

A  stranger,  on  entering  an  Australian  forest  for  the  first 
time,  is  forcibly  impressed  with  its  grandeur  and  sublimity. 
He  seems  to  have  crossed  the  hallowed  precincts  of  some 
Druid  shrine,  or  entered  the  mighty  portals  of  some  ancient 
temple — a  relic  of  ages  long  since  numbered  with  the  past. 
The  huge  bolls  of  the  trees  appear  like  pillars  supporting  the 
fretted  dome  above,  and  each  step  along  the  dim  aisles, 

"  Brown  with  o'erarching  shades," 

conducts  him  nearer  the  high  altar  to  which  they  lead.  And 
if,  perchance,  the  babbling  of  the  fountain,  or  the  soft  mur- 
murs of  the  shaded  rivulet,  are  heard  in  the  distance,  their 
strains  sound  like  choral  symphonies,  and  the  illusion  is  com- 
plete. 

Sometimes,  also,  feelings  of  melancholy  are  produced. 
These  are  naturally  inspired  by  the  dark  and  sombre  hue  of 


1839.]  AGRICULTURE    AND    HORTICULTURE.  241 

the  foliage  of  the  evergreens,  aud  the  peculiar  appearance  of 
the  leaves  of  many  of  the  gum  trees.  These  are  often  seen, — 
for  Nature  here  is  delighted  with  showing  her  perverseness, — 
inverted  in  position,  or  set  edgewise,  the  margin  being  di- 
rected towards  the  stem,  and  the  two  surfaces  resembling 
each  other. 

In  regard  to  the  state  of  agriculture  in  Australia,  but  little 
can  be  said.  The  extensive  plains  on  the  terraces  of  that  part 
of  the  country  lying  in  the  temperate  zone,  afford  such  excel- 
lent facilities  for  pasturage,  that  the  prejudice  of  the  colonists 
is  strongly  in  favor  of  that  branch  of  husbandry  Among  the 
grains  produced  in  this  section,  wheat  predominates  ;  its  cul- 
tivation, like  that  of  the  other  cerealia,  is  carried  on  much  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  England.  The  Illawarra  district, 
south  of  Sydney,  is  especially  famous  for  the  large  crops  of 
fine  grain  which  it  produces.  In  the  tropical  regions,  but 
little  attention  is  paid  to  raising  edible  productions,  as  sago  is 
obtained  in  abundance  from  different  species  of  palm,  and 
there  are  several  varieties  of  arum  much  used  for  food. 

Agricultural  and  horticultural  exhibitions  are  frequently 
held  at  Sydney,  which  exert  a  highly  beneficial  influence. 
In  all  the  large  towns,  a  great  deal  of  taste  is  displayed  in 
ornamental  gardening.  Bowers  and  trellises,  loaded  with 
choice  grapes,  or  flowering  vines ;  elegant  fuchsias,  twenty 
feet  high  ;  geraniums,  of  such  thrifty  growth,  that  they  are 
twined  into  hedgerows  ;  passion-flowers  concealing  the  entire 
fronts  of  pretty  little  cottages ;  and  American  aloes,  of  pro- 
digious size,  attract  the  notice  of  the  passer-by.  In  the  coun- 
try there  are  beautiful  orchards  and  gardens,  separated  by 
neat  hawthorn  hedges,  and  well  stocked  with  fruits  and  veg- 
etables. And  even  in  the  new  settlements,  you  will  often  see 
a  cleared  patch  of  ground,  amid  the  stumps,  surrounded  by  a 
ring  fence  to  keep  out  the  cattle  and  pigs,  abounding  with 
the  choicest  esculents  and  the  freshest  flowers,  and 

"  With  tulips,  like  the  ruddy  evening,  streak'd." 

(5.)  If  anomalies  and  peculiarities  mark   the  botany  of 

u 


242  birds.        '  [1839. 

Australia,  the  same  is  equally  true  of  animal  existence  in 
this  singular  region.  There  are  three  hundred  and  sixteen 
different  species  of  birds,  but  twenty-seven  of  which  are 
common  to  this  and  other  countries ;  yet  there  is  no  order  of 
birds  without  its  representative,  and  there  are  only  two,  the 
Australian  species  of  which  are  wholly  peculiar.  Of  the  com- 
mon species,  the  most  numerous  are  the  birds  of  prey,  eagle- 
haws,  crows,  shrikes,  pies,  and  others  of  similar  character. 
The  most  remarkable  of  the  rapacious  birds  is  a  white  eagle, 
which  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  an  albino  of  some  oth- 
er species,  or  a  hawk,  but  has  since  been  proven  to  be  a  true 
eagle.  The  usual  singing  birds  are  wanting.  There  is  a  bird, 
called  the  superb  warbler,  having  the  habits  of  the  redbreast, 
and  a  number  of  variegated  thrushes,  which  are  very  beau- 
tiful, yet,  notwithstanding  their  names,  they  are  said  to  be 
songless.  The  mountain  pheasant,  however,  and  the  Austra- 
lian magpie,  are  birds  of  song. 

A  species  of  thrush,  called  the  thunder  bird,  has  received 
from  the  colonists  the  name  of  the  "laughing  jackass,"  from 
its  peculiarly  shrill  and  discordant  cry.  Swallows,  goatsuck- 
ers, crows,  magpies,  and  larks,  are  quite  numerous.  The  lark 
is  a  poor  imitation  of  the  European  bird,  and  the  swallow  is 
much  smaller.  Birds  of  paradise,  and  the  various  species  of 
the  epimachi,  whose  beautiful  plumage  has  so  often  called 
forth  the  encomiums  of  the  poet,  are  confined  to  the  northern 
part  of  Australia.  The  sacred  kingfisher  and  the  variegated 
bee  eater  are  likewise  famous  for  the  brilliancy  and  beauty  of 
their  covering.  The  parrots,  parroquets,  and  cockatoos,  are 
numerous,  and  are  peculiar  to  the  country.  Of  the  bustard 
there  are  several  species,  two  of  which  have  been  often  mis- 
taken for  wild  turkeys  :  the  emu,  or  Australian  cassowary, 
belongs  to  the  same  order.  It  resembles  the  ostrich  very 
much  in  appearance,  but  its  legs  are  thicker,  and  it  is  more 
stoutly  built.  It  runs  with  great  rapidity,  and  will  outstrip 
the  swiftest  racer.  It  has  small  wings,  which  are  nearly  hid- 
den beneath  the  thick  tufts  of  feathers  that  lie  above  them, 


1839.]  WILD   ANIMALS.  243 

and  its  head  is  protected  by  a  helmet  consisting  of  a  horny- 
substance  disposed  in  plates  or  scales,  one  above  another. 

Curlews,  blue  plumaged  herons,  avosets,  and  rails,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  order  with  the  bustard  and  emu,  are  also 
abundant.  Ducks,  petrels,  albatrosses,  penguins,  and  peli- 
cans, are  numerous  ;  and  boobies  are  so  plentiful  that  they 
have  given  name  to  an  island  on  the  northern  coast.  Aus- 
tralia can  also  boast  of  producing,  in  considerable  numbers, 
the  black  swan — neither  brown  or  umber,  but  genuine  coal 
black — the  rara  avis  in  terris  of  the  Sulmian  bard. 

Geese,  turkeys,  ducks,  and  fowls,  were  introduced  by  the 
first  colonists,  over  sixty  years  ago  :  and  since  that  time  they 
have  increased  so  rapidly  that  the  country  is  liberally  supplied 
with  them. 

Of  the  mammalia,  there  are  fifty-eight  known  species,  only 
twelve  of  which  are  found  in  other  regions;  and  of  these 
twelve,  five  are  whales  and  four  are  seals.  Thus,  there  are, 
in  reality,  but  three  terrestrial  mammals  common  to  Aus- 
tralia and  other  countries ;  one  of  which  is  the  large,  strong- 
winged  "  Flying  Fox,"  or  "  Great  Bat"  of  Madagascar ; 
another  is  a  rodent,  a  co-genera  of  the  American  and  Asiatic 
jerboas  ;  and  the  third  is  that  well  known  cosmopolite — the 
dog.*  Thirty-three  of  the  whole  number  of  Australian  mam- 
malia belong  to  the  order  marsupialia,  and  of  these  more  than 
one  half  are  limited  to  the  continent  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  most  prominent  peculiarity  of  this  order  of  animals  is 
the  birth  of  the  young  in  an  immature  state  :  at  the  time  of 
their  birth,  the  foeti  are  destitute  of  limbs  and  other  external 
organs,  and  remain  attached  to  the  teats  of  the  mother,  which 
enlarge  so  as  to  fill  the  mouth,  inclosed  in  a  pouch,  or  second 
matrix,  formed  by  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  that  constitutes 
the  distinctive  mark  of  the  order  ;  and  when  fully  developed, 

*  It  is  doubted  by  Mr.  Ogilby,  (Linnoean  Transactions,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  121,  et 
seq.)  whether  the  Australian  dingo,  or  wild  dog,  is  a  native  of  the  continent,  and 
he  supposes  it  may  have  been  carried  there  by  the  first  primitive  settlers.  It  was 
certainly  unknown  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  previous  to  the  settlement  of  the 
British  colonists  on  the  island. 


244  THE   MARSUPIALIA.  [1839 

they  fall  from  the  teats,  and  are  for  the  first  time  ushered  into 
the  world.  But  for  a  long  time  after  this  takes  place,  the 
dam  carries  her  young  in  her  pouch,  even  when  they  can  walk, 
and  on  the  approach  of  danger,  they  always  conceal  them- 
selves in  this  secure  retreat.  When  Australia  was  first  dis- 
covered, these  animals  were  very  numerous,  but  they  are  now 
fast  disappearing. 

First  in  importance,  and  the  largest  in  size,  of  the  animals 
belonging  to  this  order,  is  the  kangaroo,  which,  in  some  of 
the  species,  has  the  proportions  of  a  large  calf.  Its  head,  neck, 
and  shoulders,  are  small,  but  it  increases  disproportionately  to- 
wards the  hind  quarters.  Its  fore  legs  are  short,  and  are  of 
no  service  in  walking,  but  are  only  used  in  burrowing  in  the 
ground,  or  in  conveying  food  to  the  mouth.  The  hind  legs  are 
long  and  powerful,  and  are  highly  useful  in  locomotion,  which 
the  animal  effects  by  a  succession  of  springs  or  leaps,  some- 
times jumping  thirty  feet  at  a  single  bound,  in  which  it  is 
materially  assisted  by  its  strong  prehensile  tail.  The  color 
is  generally  gray,  varying  in  different  shades,  though  there  is 
one  species  which  is  red  and  white.  Except  when  feeding,  or 
lying  down,  its  attitude  is  erect ;  squatting  on  its  hams  and 
tail,  like  a  South  Sea  islander.  Its  habits  are  herbiverous 
and  gregarious,  and  it  is  exceedingly  shy  and  timid.  Hunt- 
ing the  kangaroo,  affords  great  amusement  to  the  colonists. 
Its  flesh  is  edible,  and  is  esteemed  quite  a  luxury  by  the  na- 
tives. 

Besides  the  kangaroo,  there  are  seven  other  genera  of  the 
marsupialia — the  dasyuri,  the  phalangers,  the  petaurista,  the 
parameles,  the  phascolarctos,  the  phascolomys,  and  the  potorvus 
— the  different  species  of  which  vary  in  size,  from  that  of  a  rat 
to  that  of  a  dog.  The  dasyuri  found  in  Australia,  resemble 
the  weasel  tribe  in  size  and  appearance,  though  there  are 
larger  species  on  Van  Diemen's  Land  :  all  the  species  are 
carnivorous.  The  phalangers  are  not  all  distinguished  by 
united  toes,  as  the  name  implies :  some  of  them  approach 
the  quadrumana  in  the  formation  of  their  extremities ;  and 
one  of  the  latter  class,  the  vulpine  phalanger,  is  a  pretty 


1839.]  ORNITHORHYNCHUS.  245 

and  graceful  animal.  This  genera  is  insectivorous.  The 
petaurista  are  a  sub-genus  of  the  phalangers,  and  are  some- 
times called  flying  phalangers,  from  a  kind  of  parachute, 
formed  by  an  extension  of  the  skin  of  the  side,  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  :  the  squirrel  opossum  {didelpliis  sciurus) 
belongs  to  this  genus,  and  has  so  much  the  appearance  of  a 
squirrel  that  it  is  not  easy  to  detect  the  difference ;  it  skips 
from  tree  to  tree  in  the  same  manner  as  the  squirrel,  and  is 
hunted  on  moonlight  nights,  like  the  American  opossum. 
The  parameles  are  commonly  called  pouched  badgers,  from 
their  resemblance  in  form  and  habits  to  the  common  badger : 
unlike  the  other  genera  their  tails  are  very  weak.  Of  the 
phascolarctos,  or  koala,  as  it  is  generally  termed,  there  is  but 
one  species ;  which  has  a  clumsy  body,  like  that  of  a  moder- 
ate sized  dog,  with  short  legs  armed  with  claws,  adapted  for 
climbing  or  burrowing :  its  motions  are  very  slow,  and  on 
this  account  is  often  called  the  New  Holland  sloth  ;  it  pos- 
sesses cutting  teeth,  but  is  destitute  of  canines ;  the  female 
carries  her  young  for  some  time,  on  her  shoulders,  and  not 
in  her  pouch,  as  is  customary  in  this  order.  There  is,  also, 
but  one  species  of  the  phascolomys,  which  is  called  the  wombat 
by  the  colonists  :  it  is  a  plantigrade  animal,  like  the  bear,  a 
true  rodent,  and  in  size  approaches  the  badger.  The  wom- 
bat lives  in  holes,  and  when  roasted,  its  flesh  is  said  to  be  as 
delicate  as  that  of  a  young  pig.  The  potorvus,  or  wallaby, 
likewise  consists  of  but  one  species  :  it  is  the  most  diminu- 
tive of  the  kangaroo  family,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  kan- 
garoo rat. 

There  are  four  species  of  the  edentata  :  these  are  all  tooth- 
less, or  so  near  it,  that  the  term  applied  to  them  is  not  inap- 
plicable. There  are  two  genera  of  this  order,  the  echidni, 
or  porcupines,  and  the  ornithorhynchi,  both  of  which  are  des- 
titute of  teats,  and  do  not  suckle  their  young.  Of  the  por- 
cupines there  are  two  speoies :  one  is  entirely  covered  with 
closely  serried  spines,  and  the  other  has  a  coat  of  shaggy  hair 
which  half  conceals  the  spines.  The  ornithorhynchi  are, 
probably,  the    most   singular   animals    found   in  Australia. 


246  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  [1839 

There  are  two  species  of  the  genera, — the  ornithorhynchus 
paradoxus,  and  the  ornithorhynchus  fascus :  they  have  the 
body  and  habits  of  a  mole,  the  feet  and  bill  of  a  duck,  and 
the  internal  formation  of  a  reptile,  though  they  are  not  cold 
blooded  ;  they  lead  a  burrowing  life,  in  the  mud  of  rivers 
and  swamps,  and  are  so  extremely  shy,  that  their  mode  of  re- 
production has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

The  rodentia  consist  of  two  species  of  hydromys,  called 
muskrats,  uniting  the  peculiarities  of  the  dormouse,  common 
rat,  and  beaver ;  a  rat  (conilurus  constructor),  bearing  a 
general  resemblance  to  the  rabbit,  and  remarkable  for  the 
formidable  defences  of  earth  which  it  constructs  against  the 
dingo  and  birds  of  prey ;  two  peculiar  species  of  mice ;  a  red 
shrew  mouse  ;  and  the  Australian  jerboa. 

When  the  first  colonists  went  out  from  England,  in  the 
spring  of  1787,  they  took  with  them  one  stallion,  three  brood 
mares,  three  colts,  forty-nine  hogs,  twenty-five  pigs,  two  bulls, 
five  cows,  twenty-nine  sheep,  nineteen  goats,  and  five  rabbits. 
The  last  two  have  not  thriven  remarkably  well,  but  the 
other  species  of  stock  have  increased  with  great  rapidity. 
During  the  first  twenty-five  years,  frequent  importations 
were  made,  and  in  1797,  through  the  exertions  of  Captain 
M' Arthur,  a  number  of  fine  wooled  sheep  were  imported  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  original  breed  of  which  had. 
been  brought  from  Holland,  in  order  to  improve  the  coarse- 
wooled  varieties  then  in  the  country.  So  favorable  is  the 
climate  of  Australia  to  the  domestic  animals,  and  such  abund- 
ant pasturage  is  afforded  them  on  the  unlimited  plains  and 
terraces  among  the  mountains,  that  they  thrive  unusually 
well.  The  ratio  of  increase  of  horses  has  been  about  eleven 
per  cent,  yearly :  in  1817  there  were  not  far  from  three  thou- 
sand, and  there  are  now  over  forty  thousand.  The  horned 
cattle  have  multiplied  so  fast,  that  many  of  them  have 
escaped  from  the  distant  stations ;  and  there  are  now  large 
herds  in  the  interior,  numbering  from  eight  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred, in  a  completely  wild  state.  In  1821,  there  were  about 
120,000  sheep  in  the  country,  and  in  1838,  the  number  was 


1839.]  REPTILES    AND    FISH.  247 

computed  at  5,000,000.  The  average  annual  increase  is  not 
far  from  forty  per  cent.  The  wool  obtained  is  of  the  best 
quality;  the  finer  varieties  being  equal  to  the  best  Spanish, 
and  averaging  two  and  a  half  pounds  to  each  animal.  Sheep 
are  apt  to  stray,  as  well  as  the  horned  cattle,  though  they 
are  kept  in  flocks,  and  watched  by  shepherds,  either  natives 
or  convicts  ;  but  they  do  not  return  to  a  wild  state,  as  they 
are  soon  cut  off  by  the  ferocious  dingo,  or  native  dog. 

Reptiles  are  abundant.  There  are  twenty-three  known 
genera,  twenty-one  of  which  are  peculiar  to  this  country. 
There  are  two  or  three  varieties  of  turtles,  and  about  the 
same  number  of  alligators.  Lizards  and  snakes  are  numer- 
ous, and  some  of  them  are  exceedingly  venomous.  The  land 
lizards,  or  guanas,  and  the  crimson-sided  snake,  are  of  ex- 
traordinary beauty,  but  their  bite  is  deadly.  The  black,  the 
diamond,  and  the  whip  snake,  and  the  deaf  adder,  are  also 
poisonous ;  and  as  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  them  when 
curled  up  amid  the  tufts  of  grass,  it  is  sometimes  dangerous 
to  frequent  the  places  where  they  abound,  on  foot.  Sand- 
leeches,  or  blood-suckers,  are  quite  common,  and  are  much 
dreaded  on  account  of  their  bite,  as  the  wound  always  ulcer- 
ates, and  is  very  painful. 

The  bays  and  inlets  along  the  Australian  coast,  and  the 
adjacent  islands,  are  favorite  places  of  resort  for  cetaceous 
animals  ;  and  the  whale  fishery  is  annually  increasing  in  im- 
portance. All  the  surrounding  waters  and  the  rivers  abound 
in  fish.  The  largest  of  the  edible  varieties  is  said  to  be  the 
river  perch,  or  rock,  specimens  of  which  have  been  taken  in 
the  Murray  and  Morrumbidgee  rivers,  weighing  from  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds.  Besides  this 
species,  there  are  barracoota,  native  salmon,  flat-head,  trum- 
peter, crawfish,  rock  oysters,  muscles,  and  cockles,  all  in  great 
plenty.  Sharks,  of  different  varieties,  are  numerous  along 
the  shores,  and  are  frequently  found  a  great  distance  up  the 
rivers.  The  smallest  of  the  species  is  called  Watts'  shark, 
and  is  remarkable  for  having  the  mouth  near  the  extremity 


248  ABORIGINAL    INHABITANTS.  [1839 

of  the  head,  and  not  underneath,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
other  varieties. 

Insects  are  also  found  in  considerable  numbers,  yet  they  do 
not  differ  essentially  from  those  found  in  other  countries  simi- 
larly situated.  Flies,  spiders,  cockroaches,  chintz,  and  mus- 
quitoes,  abound.  Of  ants,  there  are  many  varieties,  and  of 
different  colors  and  sizes.  Some  of  them  are  as  large  as 
wasps,  and  have  visible  stings ;  and  nearly  all  the  kinds  are 
said  to  be  poisonous. 

(6.)  Mr.  Crawfurd  insists  that  the  East  insular  negro  is  a 
distinct,  and  decidedly  inferior  variety  of  the  human  race  ;* 
and  so  far  as  the  native  Australian  is  concerned,  his  many 
peculiarities  afford  strong  reasons  for  separating  him  from 
the  African  Ethiop,  whom  he  resembles  more  nearly  than 
any  other  species.  He  is  by  nature  stupid,  and  puny  and 
weak  in  person.  Both  in  his  physical  character,  and  in  his 
moral  and  intellectual  attainments,  he  bears  the  impress  of 
inferiority.  His  average  stature  barely  exceeds  five  feet. 
He  has  a  higher  forehead,  and  a  thicker  skull  than  the  Afri- 
can negro,  and  his  nose  is  not  so  much  depressed ;  but  his 
jaws  advance  still  more  boldly,  and  his  buttocks  are  consid- 
erably lower.  His  chest  and  shoulders  are  slenderly  built, 
yet  the  abdomen  is  quite  prominent.  The  muscles  are  not 
very  powerfully  developed,  though  he  is  remarkable  for  his 
agility. 

The  complexion  of  the  aborigines  is  chocolate  colored,  or 
a  tint  between  the  sooty  black  of  the  African,  and  the  clear 
olive  of  the  Malay.  Their  lips  are  not  unusually  thick,  and 
their  teeth  are  white  and  even.  Their  eyes  are  small,  black, 
and  deep  set.  Their  hair  is  long  and  black,  generally  straight, 
but  sometimes  slightly  curled  :  it  is  commonly  cropped  short, 
but  almost  always  matted  and  filthy,  though  without  grease, 
and  free  from  vermin.  The  beards  of  the  males  are  thick 
and  bushy,  but  are  not  suffered  to  grow  long.  They  be- 
smear their  bodies  with  fat  or  oil,  when  it  can  be  procured 

*  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Vol.  I.  p.  24. 


1839.]  CHARACTER.  249 

and  red  ochre,  black  paint,  or  soot.  Sometimes,  also,  they 
scarify  their  breasts  and  shoulders,  which  gives  them  an  ex- 
tremely unpleasant  appearance.  Their  voices  sound  like  the 
cackling  of  geese ;  and  they  jabber  away  so  rapidly,  and  in 
such  a  confused  lurry,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distin- 
guish words,  or  articulations,  so  as  to  comprehend  their 
meaning.  They  have  various  dialects  among  them,  which 
differ  from  any  other  language  in  the  world,  though  approx- 
imating the  most  nearly  to  that  of  the  Indians  of  South 
America. 

In  regard  to  character,  they  are  said  to  be  treacherous  and 
deceitful,  though  naturally  proud  and  independent.  They 
are  timid,  and  silent  and  reserved  in  disposition.  Being  al- 
most entirely  ignorant  of  the  distinction  between  meum  and 
tuum,  they  are  consequently  arrant  thieves.  Of  agriculture, 
or  arts,  or  manufactures,  except  the  construction  of  rude  huts, 
and  a  few  arms  and  implements,  they  are  utterly  ignorant. 
Placed  by  their  Creator  in  an  inhospitable  climate,  and  on  an 
unfriendly  soil,  they  seem  to  have  no  desire  to  better  their  con- 
dition. To  care  they  are  strangers,  and  their  wants  are  but 
few.  If  the  necessities  of  to-day  are  supplied,  they  are  con- 
tent, and  leave  to-morrow  to  take  care  of  itself.  Since  the 
settlement  of  the  country  by  the  English  colonists,  great  pains 
have  been  taken  to  ameliorate  their  situation ;  missionaries 
have  been  sent  among  them,  and  other  means  liberally  em- 
ployed, but  the  results  have  not  been  very  flattering.  Some 
of  their  habits  have  been  changed,  and,  perhaps,  they  are  not 
as  ferocious  and  murderously  inclined  as  they  once  were  ;  yet 
their  minds  do  not  seem  to  be  susceptible  of  improvement ; 
and  no  excitement  can  remove  the  natural  sluggishness  of 
their  temperaments,  and  the  inertness  of  their  faculties.  Lat- 
terly, too,  they  have  contracted  many  of  the  pernicious  hab- 
its and  appetites  of  the  whites,  and  have  become  much  ad- 
dicted to  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks.  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  they  are  dwindling  away  as  a  people  ;  for,  like 
the  North  American  Indian,  it  seems  to  be   their  destiny,  to 

11* 


250  HUTS    AND    WEAPONS.  1839.] 

give  place  to  the  fairer,  and  more  highly  gifted  races,  who 
are  gradually  supplanting  them.* 

(7.)  The  native  huts  are  of  the  simplest  and  rudest  charac- 
ter, consisting  merely  of  a  few  pieces  of  bark,  inclined  against 
a  pole  laid  horizontally  across  a  couple  of  forked  sticks,  which 
are  driven  into  the  ground.  They  sleep  on  dried  herbs  or  grass, 
and  cover  themselves  with  kangaroo  skins.  In  the  warmer 
latitudes,  it  is  not  often  that  they  construct  a  hut,  or  provide 
any  protection  against  the  weather.  Originally,  they  went 
entirely  naked,  but  since  their  intercourse  with  the  Europe- 
ans, many  of  them  clothe  themselves  with  kangaroo  skins, 
and  wear  caps  made  of  the  bark  of  trees.  Those  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  settlements  array  their  persons  in  the 
3ast-off  clothing  of  the  whites. 

Considerable  skill  is  displayed  in  the  construction  of  their 
implements  and  weapons.  They  make  hooks,  and  spears,  the 
latter  usually  three  pronged,  for  fishing ;  and  they  have,  also, 
stone  hatchets.  Their  weapons  consist  of  a  spear,  or  javelin, 
ten  feet  long,  made  of  cane  or  other  wood ;  a  club,  called 
nulla-nulla,  made  of  ti  wood,  and  about  three  feet  in  length ; 
the  dundumel,  or  tomahawk  ;  the  bundi ;  and  the  boomereng. 
They  have  likewise  shields,  made  of  the  thick  bark  of  the 
eucalypti,  which,  though  small,  with  their  agility  and  quick- 
ness of  eye,  are  sufficient  to  protect  the  whole  body  against 
the  missiles  of  an  enemy.  Their  spears  are  slender,  and  ta- 
per gradually  to  the  barbed  point :  they  are  thrown  with  the 
wammera,  a  straight  flat  stick,  three  feet  long,  with  a  socket 
of  bone  or  hide  at  the  extremity,  in  which  the  heel  of  the 
spear  is  placed.  The  wammera  is  firmly  grasped  by  three 
fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  the  spear  steadied  between  the 
forefinger  and  the  thumb,  till  the  thrower  is  prepared  to  hurl 
it.  Such  is  their  dexterity  in  the  use  of  this  weapon,  that  a 
native  is  a  dangerous  neighbor,  particularly  if  he  cherishes 

*  The  number  of  native  inhabitants  of  Australia  was  computed,  at  the  time 
of  its  discovery,  to  be  about  200,000 ;  but  it  is  now  rated  at  60,000,  and  this  is 
supposed  to  be  an  over  estimate.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  aboriginal  popu- 
lation is  diminishing. 


1839.]  canoes.  251 

any  enmity .  he  will  crawl  through  the  tall  grass  like  an 
American  savage,  and  his  aim  is  deadly,  and  his  spear  strikes 
far. 

The  boomereng  is  the  most  singular  offensive  implement 
in  use  among  the  Australians.  It  is  made  of  tough  and  hard 
wood,  about  three  feet  long,  two  inches  wide,  and  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  curved  or  crooked  at  the  centre, 
so  as  to  form  an  obtuse  angle,  and  sharpened  at  the  ends. 
When  hurled  by  a  skilful  hand,  it  rises  with  a  rotatory  motion 
in  the  air,  strikes  at  a  great  distance,  and  then  returns  to 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  thrower  ;  or  if  thrown  upon  the 
ground,  it  rebounds  in  a  straight  line,  and  ricochets  along  till 
it  reaches  the  thing  aimed  at.  It  is  useful  in  hitting  one  ob- 
ject concealed  behind  another,  and  it  may  also  be  thrown  with 
the  back  of  the  thrower  turned  towards  the  mark.  It  is  em- 
ployed by  the  natives  in  hunting,  as  well  as  in  war. 

Rude  canoes,  fourteen  feet  long,  and  three  feet  wide,  are 
made  by  the  natives  from  the  bark  of  the  gum  tree.  For 
this  purpose  the  tree  is  girdled,  and  a  piece  of  bark,  of  the 
proper  size  and  dimensions,  is  stripped  off;  this  is  folded  in 
at  either  end,  and  fastened  together  with  cords  made  of  the 
fibres  of  the  bark,  or  wooden  pins.  The  canoe  is  then  com- 
pleted, and  though  not  very  strong,  answers  their  purpose  in 
coasting  along  the  shores  within  the  surf,  or  ferrying  across 
the  creeks  and  rivers.  It  is  customary  among  them,  as  with 
the  Fuegians,  to  build  fires  in  the  bottom  of  their  canoes,  on 
layers  of  earth  or  clay. 

They  are  not  great  eaters,  nor  are  they  fastidious  in  their 
diet.  Hunger  is  appeased  by  the  spontaneous  products  of 
the  soil,  such  as  roots  and  berries,  and  the  shell  fish  found  on 
the  sea  shore,  with  reptiles,  insects,  and  their  larvse.  They 
sometimes  kill  a  bird  or  kangaroo,  or  find  one  dead  ;  in  either 
case  it  is  greedily  devoured.  The  latter  has  become  so 
scarce,  that  young  men  are  forbidden  to  eat  it.  The  great 
quantities  of  wild  cattle  now  roaming  at  large  over  the  plains 
and  through  the  valleys  of  Australia,  might  afford  a  great 
deal  of  sustenance  to  the  natives,  and  contribute  much  to 


252  customs.  [1839 

their  comfort ;  but  they  seem  wholly  unable  to  profit  by  this 
streak  of  good  fortune. 

Of  government  they  have  little  or  no  knowledge.  They 
have  chiefs  among  them,  but  the  distinction  is  merely  nomi« 
nal,  and  the  respect  paid  to  them  is  only  personal.  Their 
habits  are  gregarious,  rather  than  social.  They  live  together 
in  families,  or  tribes,  holding  everything  in  common  except 
their  women,  and  rove  about  from  one  place  to  another, 
usually  confining  themselves  to  a  circuit  of  fifty  or  sixty 
miles  in  extent.  Frequent  conflicts  take  place  between  the 
rival  tribes,  and  encounters  between  individuals  are  not  of 
rare  occurrence.  The  former  are  not  very  bloody ;  neither 
are  the  latter,  except  when  the  feelings  of  the  parties  are  very 
much  embittered,  or  the  injury  sought  to  be  avenged  is  es- 
teemed of  a  very  grave  character.  They  have  a  sort  of  duel, 
frequently  resorted  to  for  the  redress  of  personal  affronts,  which, 
though  not  in  accordance  with  the  code  of  honor,  is  certainly 
less  harmless  than  pistols  at  ten  paces  : — The  challenged  party 
offers  his  head,  with  the  crown  uppermost,  to  the  challenger, 
who  strikes  him  a  blow  with  a  waddy,  sufficient  to  drive  in 
the  skull  of  a  white  man.  The  other  party  then  returns  the 
compliment,  and  thus  they  continue  alternately  striking  each 
other,  till  one  or  the  other  is  satisfied. 

Women  are  considered  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  as 
goods  and  chattels.  They  are  sold  or  given  away  by  their 
friends,  without  consulting  their  inclinations  or  wishes.  The 
natural  consequence  is,  that  all  the  finer  affections  are  blunt- 
ed, and  parental  tenderness,  and  filial  love,  are  almost  un- 
known among  them.  Polygamy  is  commonly  practiced  ;  but 
the  men  are  exceedingly  jealous,  and  infidelity  is  punished 
with  great  severity. 

When  the  boys  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty,  they  are 
"  made  into  young  men,"  as  the  settlers  say,  after  a  strange 
fashion.  An  evening  or  two  previous  to  the  time  appointed  for 
the  ceremony,  a  dismal  wailing  cry  is  heard  in  the  woods,  pro- 
ceeding from  some  of  the  old  men  of  the  tribe  or  family,  which 
the   lads  are  told  is  the  voice  of  the   Bulii,  or  spirit  that 


1839.]  RELIGIOUS    BELIEF.  253 

watches  over  the  destinies  of  young  men,  calling  upon  them. 
They  then  proceed  with  their  elders  to  some  secluded  spot, 
where  each  one  has  a  front  tooth  knocked  out,  and  is  obliged 
to  submit  to  other  inflictions  calculated  to  test  his  courage, 
fortitude,  and  powers  of  endurance.  The  ceremony  differs 
among  the  different  tribes,  and  in  the  interior  it  is  said  that 
the  teeth  are  not  knocked  out.  After  their  initiation,  the 
now  young  men  are  restricted  in  their  diet,  and  are  never  al- 
lowed to  speak  to  or  approach  a  female  till  their  marriage. 

Though  reserved  in  their  dispositions,  the  natives  have  their 
amusements,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  the  corrobory,  a  sort 
of  dance,  in  which  the  performers  bedaub  themselves  with  pipe 
clay,  and  go  through  a  series  of  saltatory  motions,  neither 
very  easy  or  graceful,  round  a  large  fire,  with  a  monotonous 
accompaniment  chanted  fcy  themselves,  and  beaten  by  the 
spectators  upon  their  shields. 

They  bury  their  dead  in  mounds,  constructed  with  great 
skill  and  taste,  which  resemble  the  barrows  of  the  ancient 
Celts.  Like  that  people,  too,  the  corpse  is  disposed  with  the 
head  towards  the  east ;  though  the  limbs  are  doubled  back, 
so  that  the  soles  of  the  feet  touch  the  crown  of  the  head. 

Comparatively  little  is  known  in  regard  to  the  supersti- 
tions of  the  natives.  Either  from  their  natural  timidity,  or 
from  a  fear  that  it  would  be  improper  to  communicate  the 
information  sought,  they  appear  unwilling  to  talk  on  the  sub- 
ject of  their  religion.  No  adults  have  yet  embraced  Christian- 
ity ;  consequently,  that  means  of  obtaining  intelligence,  has 
not  been  possessed  by  the  missionaries,  and  others  who  have 
directed  their  attention  to  this  subject.  None  of  the  tribes 
appear  to  have  a  just  idea  of  God ;  and  when  his  character 
and  attributes  are  explained  to  them,  they  seem  unable  to 
comprehend  what  is  said.  They  have  some  indistinct  notions 
of  a  Deity,  or  Supreme  Being,  called  Bai-a-mai,  whom,  with 
his  son  Burambin,  they  regard  as  the  creator  of  all  things. 
According  to  their  superstitious  belief,  Bai-a-mai  resides  on 
an  island  beyond  the  sea,  and  lives  upon  fish,  which  come  up 
out  of  the  water  at  his  call.     Balumbals  are  white  angels, 


254  SUPERSTITIONS.  [1839 

who  live  a  great  way  off,  on  a  high  mountain  to  the  south- 
west, and  feed  on  honey.  They  also  believe  in  an  evil  spirit, 
or  devil,  called  Wandong,  or  Metagong. 

They  have  no  definite  idea  concerning  a  future  state  of 
rewards  and  punishments.  After  death,  they  suppose  the 
spirit,  or  goor-de-mit,  is  conveyed  through  the  bosom  of  the 
ocean  to  some  distant  land,  in  which  it  then  takes  up  its 
residence.  As  he  is  obliged  to  pass  through  so  much  water, 
the  deceased  person,  as  they  suppose,  is  washed  white  *. 
hence,  they  deem  the  whites  the  returned  spirits  of  theii 
ancestors  and  friends.  The  Malays  and  Lascars  are  also 
regarded  as  returned  spirits,  but  on  account  of  their  bad 
conduct  they  have  been  left  black. 

The  night-bird,  or  cuckoo,  which  the  natives  call  pogo- 
mit,  is  considered  by  them  as  the  cause  of  boils  and  erup- 
tions, which  it  produces  by  piercing  them,  when  asleep,  with 
its  beak.  They  have,  also,  a  great  dread  of  sharks ;  and 
a  fabulous  aquatic  monster,  termed  waugal,  which  they 
represent  as  having  long  arms,  long  teeth,  and  large  eyes, 
and  inhabiting  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  is  regarded  with  simi- 
lar emotions.  Certain  round  stones  found  along  the  coast 
they  believe  to  be  the  eggs  of  the  waugal,  and  when  they 
discover  one  of  them,  they  always  stop,  and  make  a  bed  for 
it,  of  leaves  ;  believing  that  by  thus  treating  them  with  care 
and  veneration,  they  will  be  spared  by  the  monster,  which  is 
said  sometimes  to  devour  great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants. 

In  sorcery  and  enchantment  they  are  firm  believers,  and 
there  are  persons  among  them,  who  are  supposed  to  possess 
the  power  of  curing  many  of  the  ills  that  flesh  is  heir  to,  of 
healing  wounds  and  sores,  and  of  dooming  or  devoting  those 
who  fall  under  their  displeasure  to  sudden  death.  If  a  fire 
be  lighted  at  night,  or  stirred  with  a  crooked  stick,  it  is 
thought  that  some  young  child  will  immediately  die.  It  is 
considered  ominous  of  ill,  to  burn  the  blood  of  a  wounded 
person  ;  to  eat  the  flower  of  the  honeysuckle  too  soon ;  or  to 
sleep  on  the  spot  where  the  blood  of  a  relative  has  been  shed, 


1839.]  COLONIZATION    OP    AUSTRALIA.  255 

until  a  victim  has  been  sacrificed  to  appease  the  shade  of  the 
deceased. 

There  are  some  hills,  to  pass  over  which,  as  they  fancy, 
is  certain  death.  They  have  quite  a  beautiful  superstition 
in  regard  to  sleep  :  when  a  person  is  in  a  slumber,  they  say 
he  is  away  "  over  the  water," — meaning  thereby,  that  his 
spirit  or  mind  has  returned  to  the  country  from  which  he 
came,  to  revisit  the  scenes  of  his  nativity.  With  respect  to 
their  own  origin,  they  suppose  that  their  earliest  progenitors 
either  sprung  from  emus,  or  were  brought  to  the  country 
they  now  inhabit,  on  the  backs  of  crows.  Of  conception 
they  have  a  singular  idea  ;  believing  that  the  infant  is  con- 
veyed into  the  mother's  womb,  by  a  secret  and  unknown 
agency,  from  some  place  across  the  sea. 

(8.)  In  May,  1787,  the  first  British  colony,  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  proposed  penal  settlement  in  Australia,  was 
sent  out  from  England,  under  Captain  Phillip,  the  person 
selected  for  the  office  of  governor.  The  Expedition  con- 
sisted of  eleven  vessels,  conveying,  besides  their  complement 
of  seamen,  two  hundred  marines,  and  seven  hundred  and 
seventy-six  convicts.  They  first  landed  at  Botany  Bay ;  but 
becoming  satisfied  that  the  adjacent  country  was  barren  and 
unprofitable,  the  governor  sailed  for  Port  Jackson,  and  on 
the  26th  of  January,  1788,  laid  the  foundation  of  Sydney, 
the  future  capital  of  New  South  Wales. 

For  the  first  twenty-five  years  after  its  establishment,  the 
colony  was  nothing  more  than  a  work-house  or  penitentiary, 
constructed  on  an  isolated  spot,  in  a  defective  and  costly 
manner,  and  altogether  too  remote  from  the  supervision  of 
the  home  government.  Subordinate  settlements  were  soon 
attempted  at  Paramatta  and  Norfolk  Island.  The  former 
was  eventually  successful,  but  the  latter  failed,  though  the 
attempt  has  been  since  renewed,  under  more  favorable  aus- 
pices, with  complete  success.  A  number  of  voluntary  im- 
migrants now  arrived,  but  they  were  of  dissolute  habits,  and, 
with  the  discharged  convicts,  formed  a  population  not  very 
well  calculated  to  build  up  a  new  colony.     At  length  a 


256  DIFFICULTIES    AND   CHAISGES.  [1839. 

regiment  of  troops  destined  for  service  in  New  South  Wales, 
was  raised  in  England,  and  subsequently  recruited  from 
there.  The  officers'  commissions  were  sold  to  dissipated 
adventurers,  and  the  men  placed  under  their  command  were 
little  better  than  convicts  in  character  and  habits.  Governor 
Phillip  had  hitherto  manfully  contended  against  numerous 
difficulties ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  this  regiment,  in  1791,  the 
embarrassments  of  his  position  were  increased  in  a  tenfold 
degree.  The  officers  set  at  defiance  the  civil  authority,  and 
organized  a  separate  faction  ;  and  having  secured  the  mono- 
poly of  the  trade  in  Sydney,  they  encouraged  the  use  of 
ardent  spirits,  and  in  that  way  exercised  a  most  pernicious 
influence. 

Utterly  despairing  of  accomplishing  any  good  by  remain- 
ing  at  his  post,  the  governor  resigned  his  office  in  1792. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Governor  Hunter  in  1795,  who  founded 
Castlehill,  Bankstown,  and  Windsor.  He,  too,  was  unable, 
with  the  powers  at  his  command,  to  repress  the  disorders  and 
excesses  in  the  colony,  which  daily  grew  more  outrageous, 
wherefore  he  also  resigned.  Captain  King  was  then  appoint- 
ed to  succeed  him,  in  1800.  He  likewise  soon  resigned,  and 
was  followed,  in  1806,  by  Captain  Bligh,  who  first  attempted 
to  resist  the  military ;  but  a  rebellion  ensuing,  headed  by 
Captain  M'Arthur,  he  was  seized  by  the  insurgents,  and 
sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Europe.  Governor  Macquarrie  was 
then  sent  out,  in  1810,  and  continued  at  the  head  of  affairs 
till  1822.  During  his  administration,  the  refractory  and 
turbulent  leaders  of  the  military  combination  were  effectu- 
ally put  down,  and  law  and  order  in  great  part  restored. 
Settlements  were  established  on  every  side ;  roads  were  con- 
structed between  the  principal  towns ;  and  measures  taken 
to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country,  and  ensure  its  con- 
tinued advance  in  prosperity.  Under  the  administrations  of 
the  subsequent  governors,  Brisbane,  Darling,  Bourke,  and 
Gipps,  the  affairs  of  the  colonies  in  Australia  have  grown 
more  and  more  promising,  till  now  nothing  short  of  a  miracle 
could  retard  them  in  their  successful  career. 


1839.]  ENCOURAGEMENT    OP    IMMIGRATION.  257 

The  establishment  of  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  was 
neither  easily  nor  cheaply  effected.  From  1788  to  1815,  in- 
clusive, the  expenses  of  the  colony  were  nearly  three  and  a 
half  million  pounds  sterling.  The  annual  cost  of  maintain- 
ing each  convict,  during  the  same  period,  was  upwards  of 
thirty  pounds,  while  his  earnings  did  not  exceed  twenty. 
The  cost  of  transporting  the  convicts,  from  England  to  the 
colony,  was  about  thirty-seven  pounds  sterling  per  head,  and 
it  was  computed  that  nearly  one-tenth  died  on  the  passage 
out.  Various  propositions  of  reform  in  these  particulars 
were  suggested  ;  and,  after  some  delay,  improvements  were 
introduced  into  the  system,  which  secured  the  better  health 
of  the  convicts,  and  greater  economy  in  the  administration 
of  the  fiscal  affairs  of  the  colonies. 

The  increase  of  population,  too,  did  not  keep  pace  with 
the  expectations  of  English  legislators,  and  vessels  were 
freighted  with  abandoned  females,  fresh  from  the  purlieus  of 
St.  Giles,  designed  as  wives  for  the  male  convicts.  Of  course, 
every  cargo  was  taken  up  as  soon  as  landed :  all  were 
promptly  secured,  for  better  or  worse,  and  pretty  surely  the 
latter.  It  could  hardly  have  been  expected  that  a  career  of 
lewdness  and  vice  would  have  fitted  them  for  being  chaste 
wives,  and  affectionate  mothers ;  inasmuch  as  personal  vanity, 
and  the  rum  and  gin  shops  of  Sydney,  were  ready  to  allure 
them  back  to  their  old  habits.  Doubts  have,  therefore,  been 
entertained,  whether  this  step  operated  beneficially  so  far  as 
regards  the  morals  of  the  colonists.  Still  there  are  as  many 
arguments  on  one  side  as  the  other.  The  convicts  were, 
no  doubt,  better  contented ;  and  some  of  them,  with  their 
wives,  became  thrifty  and  industrious,  and  made  quite  decent 
members  of  society. 

Encouragement  was  also  offered  to  the  emigration  of  per- 
sons of  respectable  character  and  standing.  A  large  tract  of 
land  was  given,  gratis,  to  every  man  going  to  New  South 
Wales  with  his  family  :  after  his  arrival,  he  was  allowed  as 
many  servants  as  he  might  require,  from  among  the  convicts, 
at  a  very  low  rate  of  wages ;  and  he  and  his  family  were 


258  SUBORDINATE    COLONIES.  [1839 

victualled  for  six  months,  at  the  expense  of  government, — 
all  points,  said  Sydney  Smith,  worthy  of  serious  attention, 
to  those  who  were  "  shedding  their  country." 

In  1839  and  1840,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  speculation 
in  the  government  lands  in  Australia,  and  the  sales  in  New 
South  Wales  exceeded,  for  the  two  years,  three  hundred  and 
forty  thousand  acres.  When  the  reaction  took  place,  a  gen- 
eral depression  of  business  followed ;  the  sales  for  1841  were 
less  than  sixteen  thousand  acres  ;  and  a  check  was  therefore 
given  to  emigration.  The  whole  number  of  immigrants  that 
arrived  in  the.  Australian  colonies  in  1841,  was  28,721 ;  and 
in  1842  there  were  only  5,740.  Since  that  time,  however, 
business  has  revived ;  and  every  year  witnesses  the  arrival 
of  great  numbers  of  immigrants,  who  locate  themselves  on 
the  unoccupied  lands,  of  which  there  are  still  immense  tracts, 
in  the  interior. 

A  penal  oolony  was  established  on  Van  Diemen's  Land  in 
1803,  which  is  subordinate  to  that  of  New  South  Wales, 
and  is  under  the  charge  of  a  lieutenant  governor.  Until 
1813,  it  continued  to  be  merely  a  place  of  transportation 
from  the  mother  colony,  but  since  that  time  it  has  gradually 
taken  the  place  of  the  latter  as  a  penal  settlement,  and  con- 
victs are  now  sent  thither  direct  from  England.  This  settle- 
ment, though  requiring  an  enormous  outlay  for  its  establish- 
ment, has  advanced  more  rapidly  in  prosperity  than  New 
South  Wales,  and  is  destined  to  become  of  great  importance. 

The  other  settlements  on  the  main  continent,  besides  New 
South  Wales,  were  formed  by  voluntary  immigrants,  and 
not  by  convicts.  The  proximity  of  northern,  or  tropical 
Australia,  to  China  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  pointed  it  out 
as  a  proper  site  for  a  colony  many  years  ago ;  and  attempts 
were  made,  with  that  object  in  view,  as  early  as  1824.  But 
the  difficulties  encountered  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the 
project,  and  in  1829  the  foundation  of  a  colony  on  the  Swan 
river,  at  the  foot  of  the  Darling  range,  now  known  as  West 
Australia,  was  laid,  by  commencing  the  construction  of  three 
towns — Guilford,  Freemantle,  and  Perth — the  last  of  which 


1839.]  GOVERNMENT.  259 

was  made  the  seat  of  government.  In  1834,  a  settlement 
was  formed  on  Vincent's  Gulf,  called  South  Australia,  under 
the  patronage  of  a  joint  stock  association  constituted  in  Eng- 
land, to  whom  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
was  intrusted.  The  association  had  the  power  of  disposing 
of  the  unappropriated  lands  within  the  colonial  limits,  on 
condition  that  the  proceeds  should  be  devoted,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, to  replacing  the  outlay  incurred  on  the  original  estab- 
lishment of  the  colony,  and  then  to  be  applied  for  the  com- 
mon benefit  of  the  inhabitants.  It  was  further  stipulated, 
that  the  colony  should  remain  under  the  immediate  su- 
perintendence of  the  crown, — the  governor  appointed  by 
whom  was  also  to  be  the  agent  of  the  company, — till  the 
population  should  reach  fifty  thousand,  when  a  representative 
legislature  might  be  organized.  This  colony  enjoyed  a  large 
share  of  prosperity  for  several  years ;  the  price  of  land,  in 
March,  1836,  rose  as  high  as  a  pound  sterling  per  acre ;  and 
by  the  1st  of  January,  1838,  64,358  acres  had  been  sold. 
But  a  period  of  severe  financial  embarrassment  now  followed ; 
in  1841,  the  land  sales  amounted  to  only  three  hundred  and 
twenty  acres ;  and  in  1842,  there  were  less  than  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  immigrants  arrived.  Still,  this  colony  pos- 
sesses many  of  the  elements  of  wealth  ;  it  contains  some  of 
the  finest  pasture  lands  in  Australia,  and  there  are  nearly 
half  a  million  of  sheep,  many  of  which  are  merinos,  now 
owned  by  its  inhabitants. 

In  1838,  a  new  colony  was  established  to  the  south-east 
of  New  South  Wales,  to  which  it  was  annexed,  and  received 
the  name  of  Port  Phillip.  This  settlement  lies  in  the  region 
known  as  Australia  Felix,  one  of  the  most  delightful  and 
productive  tracts  of  country,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 
appellation  bestowed  upon  it,  in  all  Australia.  In  the  course 
of  the  previous  year,  it  was,  by  some  means,  understood, 
that  the  French  government  were  preparing  an  expedition  to 
form  a  settlement  in  northern  Australia.  They  were  antici- 
pated, however,  by  the  English  authorities ;  who,  in  1838, 
dispatched  a  number  of  persons,  and  an  armed  force,  to  estab- 


260  population.  [1839. 

lish  a  colony  and  military  post,  at  Port  Essington,  on  the 
Coburg  peninsula.  The  situation  fixed  upon  for  the  settle- 
ment is  a  favorable  one  in  a  military  aspect,  and  well  located 
for  a  commercial  emporium,  though  there  is  not,  in  its  im- 
mediate neighborhood,  a  sufficient  extent  of  soil  for  an  agri- 
cultural or  pastoral  colony. 

According  to  a  census  taken  in  1841,  the  population  of 
New  South  Wales,  including  Port  Phillip,  amounted  to 
87,298  males,  and  43,558  females,  making,  in  all,  130,856, 
double  the  number  seven  years  previous.  In  this  computa- 
tion were  included  26,977  convicts.  The  population  of  West 
Australia,  at  that  time,  was  supposed  to  be  about  three  thou- 
sand, and  the  white  settlers  of  the  two  other  colonies  proba- 
bly amounted  to  about  fifteen  thousand. 

The  executive  power  in  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales 
resides  in  a  governor,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council  consisting 
of  the  highest  officers  of  government.  He  also  shares  the 
legislative  power  with  a  council,  composed  of  private  individ- 
uals appointed  from  among  the  principal  settlers  and  mer- 
chants, and  persons  elected  as  representatives  by  the  people, 
constituting  altogether  a  sort  of  colonial  assembly.  Both 
councils  are  appointed  by  the  king.  Every  new  law  is  pro- 
posed by  the  governor,  who,  after  submitting  it  to  the  chief 
justice,  to  obtain  his  opinion  whether  or  not  it  contains  any- 
thing contrary  to  the  law  of  England,  lays  it  before  the  leg- 
islative assembly.  If  they  approve  of  the  bill,  it  must  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  home  government  and  laid  before  the  British 
Parliament  within  six  months.  The  sovereign  may  inter- 
pose his,  or  her  veto,  at  any  time  within  three  years.  This 
tedious  process  of  legislation  has  naturally  created  discontent, 
and  elicited  frequent  murmurs  among  a  people  unusually 
firm  in  their  loyalty,  and  devoted  in  their  attachment  to  the 
"  fast-anchored  isle."  They  are  now  making  strenuous  ex- 
ertions to  obtain  a  colonial  parliament,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
their  wishes  will  be  regarded  ;  for  when  we  consider  the  im- 
mense distance,  about  twelve  thousand  miles,  that  separates 
them  from  the  home  government,  it  seems  as  unjust  as  it  is 


1839.]  COLONIAL    LIFE.  261 

absurd,  to  continue  their  present  state  of  dependence  on  a 
power  so  remote. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  colony  is  vested  in  a  chief  jus- 
tice, and  two  assistant  judges,  who  try  all  cases,  both  crimi- 
nal and  civil.  In  criminal  actions,  which  mostly  arise  among 
the  convicts,  a  jury  consisting  of  seven  naval  and  military 
officers,  selected  by  the  governor,  is  associated  with  one  of 
the  judges.  The  party  on  trial  has  the  right  of  challenge, 
however,  and  the  judge  decides  all  questions  that  may  arise 
in  relation  thereto.  Civil  causes  are  tried  before  one  of  the 
judges,  and  two  assessors,  who  must  be  magistrates  of  the 
colony,  unless  the  parties  mutually  consent  to  have  a  jury  of 
twelve  men,  when  the  proceedings  are  conducted  pretty  much 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  English  courts.  An  appeal 
lies  to  the  governor,  in  all  cases  where  the  amount  in  contro- 
versy exceeds  five  hundred  pounds,  and,  where  a  judgment 
has  been  reversed,  or  the  amount  in  litigation  exceeds  two 
thousand  pounds,  to  the  king  in  council. 

Similar  powers  are  possessed  by  the  executive  officers  in 
the  other  colonies,  and  the  legislative  and  judicial  depart- 
ments are  constituted  in  like  manner,  and  exercise  their  func- 
tions in  nearly  the  same  way. 

An  Englishman  may  well  be  pardoned  for  being  proud  of 
these  colonial  establishments  of  his  country.  They  are  stu- 
pendous monuments,  more  enduring  than  marble  or  brass, 
of  the  greatness  and  power  of  his  native  land.  The  penal 
settlements,  founded  at  such  an  enormous  outlay,  afford  un- 
mistakable evidences  of  her  wealth  ;  and  the  prosperous  con- 
dition of  the  colonists,  declares,  in  eloquent  terms,  the  all- 
conquering  industry  and  indomitable  perseverance  of  the  race 
to  which  they  belong.  There  is,  in  all  this,  much  to  excite 
feelings  of  pride  ;  and  he  who  manifests  them,  does  but  justice 
to  the  nature  God  has  planted  within  him. 

(9.)  Colonial  life  is  the  same  in  Australia  as  in  the  other 
possessions  of  England,  of  a  similar  character.  In  the  towns 
situate  in  those  colonies  which  are  not  penal,  there  are  no  pe- 
culiarities observable,  that  seem  to  require  particular  mention  j 


262  MANNERS.  [1839. 

and  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  the  convicts,  the  same 
might  be  said  of  those  in  the  penal  settlements.  At  Sydney, 
and  other  places  in  New  South  Wales,  the  government  offi- 
cers, and  the  wealthier  inhabitants  who  have  never  been  con- 
victs, constitute  the  aristocracy,  and  are  called  exclusionists ; 
the  commonalty  is  composed  of  the  liberated  convicts,  or  eman- 
cipationists ;  and  lowest  in  the  scale,  are  the  convicts  them- 
selves, on  whom  rests  heavily  the  ban  of  social  outlawry 
Each  class  looks  with  contempt  on  that  beneath  it ;  and  each, 
in  turn,  although  there  may  be  some  little  friendliness  of 
feeling  between  the  emancipationists  and  convicts,  regard 
with  hatred  that  which  is  placed  above  it.  The  aristocracy 
are  as  exclusive  in  the  bestowal  of  their  favor  and  preference 
as  the  lady  patronesses  of  Almaok's  ;  and  the  liberated  con- 
victs and  their  families  are  not  admitted  into  their  society, 
even  though  the  wealth  of  Croesus  may  be  theirs, — the  sins 
of  the  fathers  being  literally  visited  on  the  children,  even  to 
the  third  and  fourth  generations.  The  native  born  sons  and 
daughters  of  the  emancipationists,  too,  are  very  reluctant  to 
associate  with,  or  marry,  liberated  convicts. 

In  the  interior,  there  is,  of  necessity,  a  more  intimate  fusion 
of  the  mixed  classes  composing  the  society,  and,  consequently, 
the  prejudice  of  caste  is  not  so  great,  nor  so  strongly  marked. 
The  Australian  farmer,  or  grazier,  resembles  his  prototype  in 
the  old  country,  and  grumbles  as  incessantly,  over  his  glass  of 
poor  gin  or  rum,  about  the  bad  weather,  the  bad  crops,  and  the 
bad  government,  as  does  the  other,  over  his  pot  of  brown  stout 
or  humming  ale. 

Balls,  fetes,  and  dinner  parties,  are,  of  course,  of  frequent 
occurrence  at  Sydney,  and  the  other  large  towns.  All  those 
who  possess  the  necessary  means,  ape  the  manners  of  Bond 
street ;  and  the  fashions  are  mere  copies,  with  an  interval  of 
twelve  months,  of  those  of  the  Rue  St.  Honore  and  Picca- 
dilly. Some  articles  of  dress,  however,  are  more  in  accord- 
ance with  tropical  fashions  ;  and  broad-leafed  Panama  hats, 
and  white  linen  jackets  and  trowsers,  are  commonly  worn  in 
warm  weather. 


1839.]  DWELLING-HOUSES. 

A  most  commendable  interest  is  manifested  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools,  colleges,  and  literary  and  benevolent  so- 
cieties ;  and  government  has  liberally  extended  to  them  her 
fostering  care  and  patronage.  As  early  as  1817,  one  eighth 
of  the  revenue  of  the  colony  was  set  apart  for  educational 
purposes.  Large  tracts  of  land  were  also  given  to  female  or- 
phan schools,  and  a  portion,  consisting  of  fifty  or  a  hundred 
acres,  allotted  to  each  orphan.  Schools  were  likewise  founded 
for  the  civilization  and  education  of  the  natives,  and  funds 
provided  for  sending  missionaries  among  them.  In  1838, 
the  number  of  scholars  attending  the  public  schools  in  New 
South  Wales,  to  the  support  of  which  government  contributed 
over  twelve  thousand  pounds,  was  nearly  four  thousand  ;  and 
there  were  upwards  of  eighteen  hundred  scholars  attending 
private  schools.  There  were  three  collegiate  institutions,  at 
the  same  time,  which  were  well  attended ;  King's  School  at 
Paramatta,  and  Sydney  College,  and  Australian  College,  at 
Sydney. 

In  the  towns,  the  mode  of  building  is  similar  to  that  wit- 
nessed in  European  and  American  cities,  except  that  every- 
thing looks  much  fresher  and  newer  than  in  the  antiquated 
capitals  of  the  old  world.  Some  of  the  cottages,  or  country 
<«eats,  are  very  neat  and  attractive,  particularly  when  embo- 
somed amid  the  luxuriant  foliage  with  which  they  are  often 
surrounded.  They  are  usually  of  one  story,  constructed  either 
of  stone  or  wood,  and  have  high  sloping  roofs,  attic  rooms  and 
dormer  windows,  with  a  portico  in  front  and  sometimes  in  the 
rear,  and  are  flanked  by  wings  whose  roofs  descend  at  right  an- 
gles to  those  of  the  main  building.  The  dwellings  of  the  set- 
tlers are  rude  buildings,  consisting  of  slabs  driven  into  the 
ground,  or  attached  to  frames,  with  puncheon  floors,  roofs  of 
straw  thatch  or  bark,  glazed  windows,  perhaps,  and  chimneys 
of  stone  or  mud,  erected  on  the  outside,  after  the  Dutch  fashion. 
Occasionally  a  little  more  taste  will  be  exhibited,  and  balco- 
nies may  be  seen  running  along  the  fronts  of  the  houses,  sup- 
ported by  rough  trunks  of  trees,  and  decorated  by  vines  and 
creepers.     In  the  adjoining  gardens,  too,  there  will  most  likely 


264  THE    CONVICTS.  [1839. 

be  trellises  made  of  rough  slats  or  twigs,  covered  with  climb- 
ing plants,  the  fragrance  of  whose  blossoms  load  the  air  with 
perfume. 

(10.)  Much  has  been  written  in  regard  to  the  misery, 
wretchedness,  and  depravity,  of  the  convicts  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Some  of  these  accounts 
have,  no  doubt,  been  somewhat  too  highly  colored ;  but  the 
unvarnished  truth  possesses  dark  and  repulsive  features  in 
abundance.  Vice  and  licentiousness,  in  every  form  and 
shape,  may  be  witnessed  among  the  convicts  in  the  penal 
settlements,  and  with  these  odious  characteristics,  drunken- 
ness, of  the  most  bestial  character,  pretty  surely  goes  hand 
in  hand. 

Criminals  of  the  worst  description  are  either  confined  in 
prisons,  or  sent  to  the  penitentiary  on  Norfolk  Island.  The 
mode  of  discipline  practiced  here  is  what  is  called  the  social 
system  :  the  convict  is  first  placed  in  solitary  confinement 
for  a  certain  time,  and  then  put  at  hard  labor,  in  company 
with  his  fellows.  During  the  latter  period,  he  is  supplied 
with  books,  and  allowed  numerous  privileges  and  recreations, 
which,  unless  he  is  beyond  the  reach  of  moral  influences,  are 
calculated  to  bring  him  back  to  a  correct  way  of  life.  All 
the  public  work  in  Sydney  and  other  towns  in  New  South 
Wales,  is  performed  by  convicts,  and  a  strong  body  of 
mounted  police,  and  a  large  military  force,  are  required  to 
keep  them  in  subjection.  They  are  driven  through  the 
streets  in  gangs,  accompanied  by  guards  and  sentinels,  and 
work  chained  together  in  pairs.  Their  dress  consists  of  a 
coarse  canvas  jacket  and  trowsers,  of  a  peculiar  fashion, 
with  "  chain-gang"  conspicuously  marked  on  the  back  of  the 
former,  and  a  jockey  cap. 

Those  convicts  whose  crimes  are  of  an  inferior  grade,  are 
assigned  to  the  settlers,  on  their  application,  who  put  them 
to  such  labor  as  they  please,  and  are  at  the  expense  of  their 
maintenance  alone.  Those  who  behave  well,  for,  perhaps, 
half  their  term,  often  have  their  sentences  mitigated,  and  are 
furnished  with  tickets  of  leave.     They  are  then  called  ticket- 


t$39»]  TASMANIA.  265 

of-leave  men,  and  are  allowed  to  hire  themselves  out,  their 
employers  stipulating  to  keep  a  strict  watch  over  their  con- 
duct. Most  of  the  female  convicts  are  also  assigned,  and  the 
refractory  and  turbulent  ones  are  sent  to  the  factory  at  Par- 
amatta, where  they  are  employed  in  making  clothing,  pick- 
ing oakum,  and  plaiting  straw. 

Sometimes  a  convict  takes  to  the  bush,  as  it  is  termed ; 
that  is,  makes  his  escape  to  the  woods  in  the  interior,  where 
he  leads  a  roving,  depredatory  life,  and  is  called  a  bush- 
ranger. The  natives  generally  stand  in  great  awe  of  the 
fugitive  convicts,  who  terrify  them  by  feigning  to  be  "  native 
devils ;"  yet  they  frequently  render  important  services  to  the 
government  officers  in  recapturing  them. 

Recently,  in  compliance  with  the  earnest  importunities  of 
the  free  settlers,  New  South  Wales  has  been  discontinued  as 
a  penal  colony,  and  Chatham  Island,  in  43°  52'  southern 
latitude,  and  longitude  179°  14'  W.,  has  been  selected  as  a 
convict  settlement.  The  foregoing  remarks,  therefore,  will 
be  taken  as  applying  to  the  former  condition  of  the  convicts, 
except  as  to  those  who  are  still  left  there  to  serve  out  their 
terms  of  service.  Since  this  change  was  made,  and  no  more 
convicts  are  sent  to  the  colony,  those  who  had  not  been  for- 
tunate enough  to  secure  such  as  they  needed  for  servants, 
have  been  forced  to  employ  free  laborers,  at  an  average  rate 
of  thirty  pounds  sterling  per  year,  in  addition  to  rations.  It 
was  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  some  considerable  incon- 
venience should  be  at  first  felt ;  but  the  colony  has  already 
recovered  from  the  shock,  and  is  steadily  pursuing  her  career 
of  prosperity. 

A  few,  and  but  a  few,  in  comparison  with  the  whole  num- 
ber of  convicts,  become  good  citizens.  Many  of  them  engage 
in  trade,  and  amass  great  wealth.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
shopkeepers  in  Sydney  are  liberated  convicts  ;  and  ticket-of- 
leave  men  often  follow  similar  pursuits,  with  the  consent  and 
patronage  of  their  nominal  employers. 

(11.)  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  has  long  been 
associated,  in  idea,  with  New  Holland,  and  it  should  be  men- 

13 


266  GEOLOGY.  [1839. 

tioned  in  connection  therewith.  This  island  was  originally 
discovered  in  1642,  by  the  Dutch  navigator,  Tasman ;  but 
it  received  the  name  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  which  is  now 
justly  giving  place  to  that  in  honor  of  its  first  discoverer, 
after  a  governor  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  It  was  visited, 
and  partially  explored,  by  Cook,  Furneaux,  and  other  navi- 
gators, but  was  not  known  to  be  an  island  till  1798,  when 
Bass  sailed  through  the  straits  to  which  his  name  has  been 
given. 

The  island  is  shaped  like  a  heart,  and  lies  between  lati- 
tude 41°  20'  and  43°  40'  S.,  and  longitude  144°  40'  and  148° 
20'  E.  It  contains  about  twenty-seven  thousand  square 
miles.  The  population,  in  1838,  numbered  45,846,  of  whom 
18,133  were  convicts.  What  has  been  previously  said  in 
regard  to  the  free  colonists  and  convicts  of  New  South  "Wales 
will  apply,  with  some  trifling  and  unimportant  exceptions,  to 
those  of  Tasmania. 

Geological  appearances  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
this  island,  and  the  main  continent  of  Australia,  were  once 
united,  though  they  are  now  separated  by  a  deep  sea,  aver- 
aging one  hundred  and  forty  miles  in  width.  Tasmania  is 
much  smaller,  it  is  true,  and,  therefore,  there  is  scarcely 
room  for  the  same  variety  of  scenery  observed  in  Australia ; 
yet  its  outlines,  form  and  appearance,  are  very  different. 
The  shores  are  bolder  and  more  picturesque ;  and  the  moun- 
tains rise,  not  in  continuous  ranges,  as  on  the  Australian 
Continent,  but  in  isolated  peaks,  often  abruptly,  to  the 
height  of  from  three  to  four  thousand  feet, — their  rough  sides 
deeply  indented  with  furrows,  and  the  jutting  crags,  and  tall 
cliffs  of  basalt,  on  their  cloud-capt  summits,  frowning  gloom- 
ily on  the  valleys  at  their  feet.  The  surface  of  the  country 
is  broken  and  uneven,  consisting  of  elevated  table  lands,  and 
fertile  valleys,  disposed  alternately,  most  of  which  are  fit 
either  for  cultivation  or  pasturage.  Sandstone,  limestone, 
and  basalt,  are  the  principal  rocks.  Coal,  copper,  lead,  zino, 
and  manganese,  exist ;  and  iron  ore  has  been  obtained,  yield- 
ing eighty  per  cent,   of  metal,  in  considerable   quantities 


1839.]  VEGETABLE    AND   ANIMAL    KINGDOMS.  267 

The  upper  soil  is  a  rich  vegetable  mould,  or  sandy,  or  argil- 
laceous. A  large  portion  of  the  island  is  adapted  to  cultiva- 
tion :  there  are  immense  tracts  of  the  finest  land  lying  along 
the  coast;  and  in  the  interior,  there  are  extensive  reaches 
of  prairie,  covered  with  thrifty  herbage,  and  already  fitted  by 
Nature  for  the  plough. 

Lands  were  at  first  granted  to  the  voluntary  settlers, — 
the  average  price  per  acre  ranging  from  five  to  six  shillings, 
English  currency.  Subsequently  they  were  sold  at  auction. 
Great  quantities  were  thus  disposed  of,  yet  it  is  estimated 
that  there  are  full  eleven  millions  of  acres  on  the  island  still 
ungranted. 

Europeans  are  much  sooner  acclimatized  in  Tasmania, 
than  in  New  South  Wales.  The  climate  is  more  healthy, 
and  the  changes  of  temperature  more  regular  in  their  recur- 
rence ;  happily,  too,  the  extremes  of  drought  and  flood  so 
common  in  Australia,  are  not  witnessed  here.  The  winters 
are  colder,  and  the  summers  more  mild,  than  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Sydney. 

Vegetation  is  much  the  same  as  in  Southern  Australia. 
The  same  trees,  plants,  and  flowers,  with  few  exceptions,  are 
found  in  tolerable  profusion.  The  most  valuable  timber 
trees  are  the  Huon  and  Adventure  bay  pines,  and  the  black 
wood,  which  last  is  peculiar  to  the  island.  Apples,  currants, 
plums,  and  gooseberries,  attain  maturity,  but  the  peaches  and 
grapes  are  quite  inferior.  Citrons,  oranges,  and  pomegran- 
ates, are  not  raised.  Agriculture  is  yet  in  a  backward  state, 
rather  on  account  of  the  improper  or  deficient  culture,  than 
the  inferiority  of  the  soil.  The  latter  is  probably  better  cal- 
culated for  grazing  than  cropping,  and  the  climate  is  alto- 
gether too  cold  for  maize.  Wool  is  the  staple  product  of  the 
colony,  and  the  amount  sheared  is  said  to  double  every  ten 
years.  The  stock  of  horses  and  cattle  is  also  very  large,  and 
goats  are  quite  numerous. 

The  animal  kingdom  is  likewise  similar  to  that  of  Aus- 
tralia. Kangaroos  are  more  plenty,  however  ;  but  there  is 
no  native  dog.     Still,  his  place  is  well  filled  by  the  forester, 


268  HARBORS    AND    LAKES.  1839.] 

a  species  of  panther,  which  commits  great  havoc  among  the 
sheep.  All  the  different  genera  of  the  marsupialia  are  found. 
and  there  are  two  species  of  dasyuri  peculiar  to  the  island  ; 
these  are  the  dog-faced  dasyurus,  and  the  dasyurus  ursinus. 
The  former  resembles  an  ill -made  dog,  but  is  marked  with 
stripes  like  the  zebra.  The  latter  is  an  ugly  and  disgusting 
animal  in  appearance,  whence  the  colonists  have  called  him 
the  "  devil." 

Numerous  excellent  harbors  are  furnished  in  the  frequent 
indentations  of  the  coast,  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  there 
are  some  of  the  finest  roadsteads  in  the  world.  The  two 
principal  streams  are  the  Derwent  and  the  Tamar.  The  lat- 
ter is  formed  by  the  North  Esk  and  the  South  Esk.  All 
these  rivers  rise  near  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  Derwent 
pursues  a  south-easterly  course,  and  the  others  run  to  the 
north.  The  harbor,  or  roadstead,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Der- 
went, is  forty-three  miles  in  length  :  it  is  completely  land- 
locked, and  varies  in  breadth  from  two  to  eight  miles ;  the 
water  is  from  thirty  to  forty  fathoms  deep,  and  good  anchor- 
age is  afforded  for  vessels  of  the  largest  class,  twenty-three 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river  ;  vessels  of  fifty  tons  bur- 
den can  proceed  twenty  miles  higher  up,  where  the  naviga- 
tion is  interrupted  by  an  abrupt  ridge  of  rocks.  The  Tamar, 
which,  perhaps,  should  more  properly  be  considered  as  an 
inlet  of  the  sea,  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  three  hundred  tons 
burden,  forty  miles  from  its  mouth.  There  is  a  dangerous 
bar,  however,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  passage  up,' 
unless  aided  by  steam,  is  rather  intricate. 

There  are  several  lakes  of  large  size  in  the  interior ;  one 
of  which,  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  said  to  be  about 
sixty  miles  in  circumference,  to  abound  with  fine  fish,  and  to 
be  surrounded  with  a  profusion  of  tall  funereal  pines,  and 
cedars,  and  eucalypti,  whose  dark  and  gloomy  shadows  are 
reflected  in  its  clear  still  waters.  Profound  silence,  broken 
only  by  the  dismal  wailings  of  the  forester,  or  the  shrill  cries 
of  the  wild  fowl  that  flit  slowly  over  the  solitary  scene, 
reigns  everywhere  around. 


1839.]  GOVERNMENT.  269 

Nominally,  the  government  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  is  sub- 
ordinate to  that  of  New  South  Wales  ;  but,  in  fact,  the  local 
government  is  administered,  independent  of  the  parent  colony, 
by  the  lieutenant  governor,  with  the  assistance  of  the  execu- 
tive and  legislative  councils.  The  former  is  composed  of  the 
lieutenant  governor,  chief  justice,  colonial  secretary,  treas- 
urer, and  the  officer  commanding  the  forces  on  the  island ; 
and  the  latter  consists  of  the  members  of  the  executive 
council,  ex  officio,  and  ten  or  fifteen  other  persons  appointed 
by  the  sovereign.  Special  acts  may  be  passed  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  council ;  but  the  common  law  of  England,  and  the 
acts  of  the  British  parliament,  are  supreme.  In  other  re- 
spects, the  civil  affairs  of  the  colony  are  administered  in  a 
similar  manner  with  those  of  New  South  Wales.  The 
administration  of  justice,  and  the  mode  of  discipline  adopted 
with  the  convicts,  are  also  similar. 

The  public  revenue,  mainly  derived  from  the  sales  of  the 
public  lands,  amounted,  in  1840,  to  upwards  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty-five  thousand  pounds  sterling ;  its  annual  increase 
being  about  fcrty  per  cent.  The  annual  expenditure,  includ- 
ing over  ten  thousand  pounds  appropriated  to  the  support  of 
public  schools,  fell  a  little  short  of  that  amount. 

In  1838,  the  number  of  natives  on  the  island  was  only 
one  hundred  and  thirty.  The  aboriginal  race  had  been 
gradually  disappearing;  but  frequent  bloody  encounters  hav- 
ing taken  place  between  the  few  that  were  still  left  and  the 
settlers,  they  were  nearly  all  caught  and  sent  to  Flinders' 
Island,  in  Bass'  Straits,  where  they  are  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  colonial  government.  They  are,  probably,  an 
off-shoot  of  the  Papuan  race  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and 
are  sunk  in  the  lowest  depths  of  degradation,  being  at  the 
very  bottom  of  the  scale  of  civilization,  and  seeming  almost 
to  defy  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  to  cultivate  their  minds 
or  Christianize  their  hearts  Their  habits,  modes  of  life,  and 
superstitions,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Australians. 

Hobarton,  or  Hobart  Town,  on  the  south-east,  and  Laun- 
ceston,  on  the  northern  shore,  are  the  only  important  towns 


270  HOBARTON    AND    LAUNCESTON.  [1839 

on  the  island.  The  former  is  the  seat  of  government,  and 
is  situated  on  the  Derwent,  about  twenty  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Its  fine  harbor,  which  has  been  described,  affords  it 
great  commercial  advantages,  and  it  is  rapidly  increasing  in 
wealth,  population,  and  importance.  In  1838  its  tonnage 
already  amounted  to  6079  tons ;  and  the  number  of  its  in- 
habitants was  14,382,  over  thirty-five  hundred  of  whom 
were  convicts.  Its  position  is  highly  picturesque.  It  lies  on 
the  declivities  of  two  hills,  sloping  gently  upwards,  on  either 
hand,  from  the  valley  of  a  small  stream  that  intersects  them, 
and  is  surrounded  by  delightful  villas  and  country  residences, 
tastefully  disposed  amid  groves,  and  orchards,  and  gardens, 
of  surpassing  luxuriance  and  beauty.  In  the  rear  of  the 
town,  on  the  west,  tower  up  the  rough  and  rocky  walls,  and 
the  battlemented  heights,  of  Table  Mountain,  to  an  elevation 
of  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  streets  are  wide, 
and  for  the  most  part  intersect  each  other  at  right  angles.  It 
is  regularly  and  neatly  built,  and  possesses,  among  its  archi- 
tectural attractions,  a  spacious  and  handsome  government 
house,  a  pretty  church,  constructed  of  brick,  and  a  jail.  It 
has,  also,  a  large  and  convenient  quay,  at  which  vessels  of 
the  heaviest  burden  can  load  or  unload. 

Launceston  lies  on  the  Tamar,  about  forty  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and,  in  1838,  contained  about  six  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  pleasantly  and  agreeably  situated,  and  is  laid  out 
with  uniformity  and  regularity.  Most  of  the  houses  are  of 
two  stories  in  height,  and  it  contains  some  very  good  public 
buildings.  Georgetown,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  is  a 
pretty  little  village,  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Launceston 
resort  for  sea-bathing,  and  to  enjoy  the  fine  breezes. 

(12.)  Sydney,  however,  the  capital  and  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  New  South  Wales,  is  the  chief  mart  of  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies,  and  the  commercial  entrepot  and  emporium 
of  all  the  settlements  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  likewise  a  favorite 
place  of  resort,  to  refit  or  to  obtain  supplies,  of  the  whalers 
that  frequent  the  "  middle  ground"  between  New  Zealand 
and  Australia.     This  town  contained  a  population  of  about. 


1839.]  bydney.  271 

thirty  thousand,  in  1841,  including  over  two  thousand  con- 
victs, and  has  increased  with  considerable  rapidity  since  that 
time.  It  occupies  two  hilly  necks  of  land,  bounding,  on  the 
east  and  west,  a  cove  on  the  south  side  of  Port  Jackson,  and 
a  broad  extent  of  interval  ground  lying  between  them.  In 
the  old  town,  called  '  The  Rocks,'  occupying  the  eastern 
peninsula,  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  lined  with 
grog  shops  and  brothels,  and  everywhere  presenting  scenes 
of  vice  and  depravity,  painful  to  the  sight,  and  that  sicken 
the  heart.  The  new  town,  separated  from  the  former  by 
George  street,  the  principal  thoroughfare,  and  lying  on  the 
left  side  of  the  cove,  and  towards  the  south  part  of  the  in- 
terval, is  laid  out  more  uniformly,  and  contains  many  hand- 
some dwellings,  rising  in  successive  terraces,  and  agreeably 
adorned  with  the  rich  foliage  of  the  Australian  forest  trees. 

The  old  town,  though  the  best  adapted  for  the  erection  of 
wharfs  and  warehouses,  is  occupied,  in  great  part,  by  the 
government  domain.  The  government  house  is  a  new  build- 
ing, standing  near  the  road  leading  to  the  south  head  of  Port 
Jackson,  and  having  in  its  front  a  fine  range  of  English  oaks 
and  Cape  pines,  where  the  inhabitants  usually  go  for  a  drive 
or  promenade.  The  other  public  buildings  are  the  barracks, 
occupying  one  side  of  the  principal  square ;  the  convict  hos- 
pital, a  spacious  stone  building,  with  open  verandas ;  the 
military  hospital;  the  convict  barracks;  the  court-house,  jail, 
and  custom-house.  There  are  some  fine  church  edifices  ; 
among  them,  two  Episcopal  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  built  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  several  chapels  be- 
longing to  various  dissenting  denominations. 

Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  a  light  drab  colored  sand- 
stone, or  of  red  brick  ;  and  many  of  the  private  residences 
are  only  one  story  in  height,  and  almost  concealed  by  the 
masses  of  dark  foliage  in  the  surrounding  gardens.  House 
rent  is  high.  Building  land  on  George  street  has  been  sold 
for  twenty  thousand  pounds  per  acre.  There  are  extensive 
auction  rooms  and  commercial  establishments  in  the  town  ; 
hotels  and  inns  in  abundance ;  a  number  of  steam  mills ;  and 


272  OTHER    TOWNS.  [1839 

a  good  theatre.  As  the  soil  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sydney 
is  so  sandy,  and  as  there  is  a  total  absence  of  springs,  the 
inhabitants  suffered  under  great  disadvantage,  in  former 
years,  for  the  want  of  water  during  the  long  droughts.  In 
order  to  remedy  this  evil,  and  to  provide  for  a  permanent 
supply,  Governor  Gipps  adopted  the  expedient  of  damming 
up  all  the  small  water  courses,  and  then  distributing  the 
water,  when  required,  from  these  reservoirs,  through  the 
town. 

Banking  is,  perhaps,  the  chief  business  carried  on  in  Syd- 
ney. There  have  been  several  joint  stock  associations  estab- 
lished, the  oldest  of  which,  called  the  bank  of  New  South 
Wales,  was  founded  in  1816.  A  savings  bank  has  likewise 
been  founded,  and  auction,  insurance,  gas,  and  steam  com- 
panies, formed. 

Among  the  literary  institutions  are  the  Australian  college 
and  Sydney  college  ;  a  normal  institution  ;  several  denomina- 
tional schools ;  and  numerous  boarding  schools,  and  private 
seminaries  of  learning.  There  are  a  number  of  newspapers 
published  in  Sydney,  which  are  conducted  with  some  ability ; 
but  the  licentiousness  of  the  press  is  a  subject  of  universal 
complaint.  Every  facility  for  the  printing  and  publication  of 
books  is  afforded  here,  and  those  which  have  appeared  are  de- 
cidedly creditable  to  the  taste  and  skill  of  those  concerned  in 
their  issue.  A  museum,  rich  in  Australian  curiosities,  and  a 
botanical  garden,  occupying  a  part  of  the  public  grounds  on 
the  east  side  of  the  town,  complete  the  list  of  attractions. 

Paramatta,  fifteen  miles  above  Sydney,  and  one  below  the 
head  of  steam  navigation  on  Paramatta  river,  is  a  smalltown, 
built  in  a  straggling  manner,  but  containing  many  fine  coun- 
try residences.  Among  its  public  buildings,  are  the  govern- 
ment house,  which  the  governor  occupies  during  the  summer 
months,  the  female  penitentiary  or  factory,  the  barracks,  the 
court-house,  and  several  churches.  Most  of  these  edifices  are 
constructed  of  stone.  Woolongong,  the  principal  port  in  the 
Illawarra  district, — which  has  a  good  artificial  harbor  formed 
by  a  massive  stone  breakwater,  the  material  for  the  construe 


1839.]  COMMERCE.  273 

tion  of  which  was  taken  from  the  basin  it  protects, — and 
Bathurst,  beyond  the  Blue  Mountains,  on  the  river  Mac- 
quarrie,  are  the  only  other  important  towns  in  New  South 
Wales. 

Adelaide,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  lies  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent.  Its  construction  was  com- 
menced in  1837,  and,  in  1841,  it  contained  about  six  hun- 
dred houses,  and  four  thousand  inhabitants.  It  has  a  bank, 
with  an  extensive  circulation,  and  dealing  in  exchange  on 
Europe,  India,  and  Cape  Town.  It  has,  also,  two  newspapers, 
and  is  quite  a  thriving  business  place.  Port  Lincoln,  founded 
in  1838,  on  the  west  side  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  is  said  to  possess 
still  better  natural  advantages,  and  to  be  increasing  with 
equal,  if  not  greater,  rapidity.  Perth,  on  Swan  river,  and 
Albany,  on  the  southern  coast,  in  West  Australia,  are  small 
towns ;  and  the  same  is  true  of  Victoria,  in  North  Australia. 

(13.)  The  commerce  of  the  Australian  colonies  has  made 
wonderful  strides.  Nine  tenths  of  the  trade  is  probably  car- 
ried on  through  the  ports  of  New  South  Wales.  The  imports 
into  this  colony,  principally  consisting  of  liquor,  grain,  pro- 
visions, and  manufactured  goods,  amounted  to  over  two  and 
half  million  pounds  sterling  in  the  year  1840.  The  exports 
for  the  same  year  fell  a  little  short  of  two  millions.  Wool  is 
the  great  article  of  export :  the  amount  sent  out  of  the  coun- 
try, in  1840,  was  7,668,960  pounds,  valued  at  fifteen  pence, 
sterling  currency,  per  pound.  Next  in  importance  is  oil  ; 
about  two  thousand  tons  of  sperm,  valued  at  eighty-five 
pounds  per  ton,  and  over  four  thousand  of  black  whale  oil, 
valued  at  eighteen  pounds  per  ton,  were  exported  in  the  same 
year.  There  were  two  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  whale  bone, 
worth  one  hundred  pounds  per  ton,  also  exported.  The  ex- 
ports of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  amounted,  in  1840,  to  nearly 
one  million  pounds  sterling,  of  which  wool  was  the  principal 
article ;  and  the  imports  exceeded  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  pounds.  Timber  is  also  an  important  article  of  e 
port,  particularly  to  the  mother  country,  from  all  her  Aust*  *- 

12* 


274  MANUFACTURES  L^839. 

lian  possessions,  though  of  less  pecuniary  ▼fliuo   than  the 
others  which  have  been  mentioned. 

But  little  attention  has,  so  far,  been  paid  to  manufactures ; 
and  the  enterprise  and  industry  of  the  population  are  display- 
ed more  prominently,  in  their  pastoral  and  agricultural  pur- 
suits. Water  power  is  scarce,  and  not  very  permanent  where 
it  can  be  obtained.  As  a  substitute,  steam  has  been  intro- 
duced in  Sydney  and  other  towns.  Flour  and  saw  mills,  the 
machinery  of  which  is  propelled  by  this  agent,  have  been 
constructed  in  considerable  numbers.  In  the  saw  mills,  large 
quantities  of  timber  are  prepared  for  exportation.  Red  and 
white  wines,  resembling  hock  and  claret,  are  manufactured 
to  some  extent,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  grape  is  constantly 
growing  in  favor.  There  are  extensive  saltworks  at  Newing- 
ton,  near  Paramatta,  where  the  water  is  drawn  from  the  river 
into  ponds,  and  the  salt  obtained  by  evaporation.  Salt  may 
likewise  be  procured  from  many  of  the  springs  and  streams  in 
the  interior ;  and  in  the  low  places  impregnated  with  this 
substance,  it  is  sometimes  only  necessary  to  cut  a  small  hole, 
or  tank,  in  the  ground,  when  a  convenient  pickling  pan  is  at 
once  furnished. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

(ls)  Departure  from  Sydney.  Antarctic  Expedition.  Macquarrie  Island. — (2.) 
Discovery  of  the  Antarctic  Continent.  Return  of  the  Squadron. — (3.) 
Discoveries  of  other  Navigators.  Biscoe.  Balleny.  Dumont  d'UrviHe. 
(4.)  Ross'  Voyages.  Volcanic  Mountains.  Cruise  of  the  Pagoda. — (5.) 
Results  of  the  different  Expeditions.— (6.)  Supposed  Geological  Structure 
of  the  Antarctic  Continent. — (7.)  Icebergs.  Aurora  Australis. — (8.)  Vege- 
table and  Animal  Life. — (9.)  Rendezvous  of  the  American  Squadron  at  the 
Bay  of  Islands. 

(1.)  The  American  Exploring  Squadron  was  detained  at 
Sydney  for  a  long  time,  in  making  the  necessary  repairs,  and 
completing  the  outfits,  requisite  for  the  service  of  the  vessels 
in  the  high  southern  latitudes  whither  they  were  bound. 
And  even  when  orders  were  finally  issued  to  get  ready  for 
sea,  much  remained  undone  that  might  have  promoted  the 
health  and  comfort  of  the  crews,  and  rendered  the  expedition 
more  productive  in  results.  In  truth,  the  vessels  belonging 
to  the  squadron  were  not  originally  calculated  for  a  cruise  in 
the  Antarctic  regions,  and  they  were  not  strong  enough  of 
build,  nor  sufficiently  fortified,  to  make  their  way  in  safety 
through  the  ice-packs  which  they  were  expected  to  encoun- 
ter. They  were  poorly  supplied,  too,  with  anti-scorbutics, 
and  other  necessaries  and  conveniences,  the  want  of  which 
was  seriously  felt  during  the  whole  voyage.  The  officers  in 
command  were  well  aware  of  the  deficiency  in  their  prepara- 
tions, yet  the  season  was  now  far  advanced ;  from  one  cause 
or  another  they  had  been  behind  time  ever  since  they  left 
home;  and  further  delay,  at  this  juncture,  was  entirely  out 
of  the  question.  Wisely,  therefore,  and  from  the  most  com- 
mendable motives,  they  determined  that  no  trifling  difficul- 


276  ANTARCTIC  EXPEDITION.  [1840 

ties  or  embarrassments  should  balk  them  in  the  execution 
of  the  enterprise  which  they  had  so  much  at  heart. 

All  the  preparations  that  were  possible  having  been  made, 
sails  were  set  and  anchors  hove  up,  and  on  the  26th  of  De- 
cember the  entire  squadron  stood  out  to  sea.  The  scientific 
corps  were  left  at  Sydney,  with  orders,  after  completing  their 
researches  in  New  South  Wales,  to  proceed  to  the  Bay  of 
Islands,  in  New  Zealand,  which  was  fixed  upon  as  the  ren- 
dezvous for  the  squadron,  on  their  return  from  the  Antarctic* 

For  several  days  after  leaving  Sydney,  the  weather  was 
very  fine ;  the  sea  was  remarkably  phosphorescent ;  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  was  mild ;  and  the  favoring  wind,  that 
came  in  gentle  puffs,  and  distended  the  bellying  sails  just 
enough  to  display  the  beauty  of  their  graceful  outlines, 
seemed  to  speak  of  a  softer  and  balmier  atmosphere  than  that 
of  the  bleak  and  frozen  solitudes  to  which  the  vessels 
were  rapidly  hurrying,  like  birds  on  the  wing.  Availing 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  thus  afforded,  all  hands  on 
board  were  actively  employed  in  building  hurricane  houses 
around  the  hatches,  and  calking  and  chinsing  the  seams  and 
openings,  so  as  to  keep  the  cabins  warm  and  dry ;  it  being 
designed  to  maintain  an  even  temperature  of  about  50°,  in- 
side the  vessels,  throughout  the  cruise. 

On  the  night  of  the  1st  of  January,  1840,  the  wind  fresh- 
ened, and  the  weather  came  on  thick  and  misty.  Before 
morning,  the  tender  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  squadron, 
and  was  unable  to  come  up  with  them  again.  She  cruised 
about  for  upwards  of  a  month,  visiting  meanwhile  Macquarrie 
and  Emerald  islands,  and  on  the  5th  of  February  com- 
menced her  return  voyage  to  the  Bay  of  Islands,  where  she 
arrived  on  the  9th  of  March. 

*  Before  the  departure  of  the  squadron  from  Sydney,  the  scientific  corps  re- 
quested permission  of  Captain  Wilkes  ta  charter  a  small  vessel,  in  which,  dur- 
ing his  absence,  they  might  survey  and  examine  some  of  the  interesting  and 
important  islands  in  the  vicinity.  For  some  reason,  which,  as  the  commander 
vouchsafed  no  explanation,  seems  to  have  been  both  arbitrarily  and  unwisely 
adopted,  no  notice  was  taken  of  their  communication. 


1840.]  MACaiTARRIE    ISLAND.  277 

After  the  1st  of  January,  there  were  comparatively  few- 
pleasant  days.  Dense  fogs,  and  heavy  snow  squalls  and 
storms,  alternated  with  the  open  and  favorable  weather.  On 
the  3d  instant,  the  Peacock  separated  from  the  Vincennes 
and  Porpoise,  and  on  discovering  this,  Captain  Hudson 
steered  for  Macquarrie  Island,  which  he  found  to  be  a  lone- 
some and  dreary  spot,  destitute  of  either  trees  or  shrubs, 
its  only  verdure  consisting  of  long  tufted  grass,  and  tenanted 
by  myriads  of  penguins,  {eudyptes  chrysocome). — This  bird, 
in  respect  to  size,  is  an  inferior  variety  of  the  species.  It  is 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  in  height,  when  standing  erect. 
Its  plumage  is  white  on  the  breast,  black  on  the  back,  and 
elsewhere  of  a  dark  dove  color,  except  on  the  head,  which  is 
adorned  with  four  or  five  beautiful  yellow  feathers.  Leaving 
Macquarrie  Island,  Captain  Hudson  proceeded  to  the  south- 
ward, and  again  fell  in  with  the  Vincennes  and  Porpoise. 
The  three  vessels  were  now  rapidly  approaching  the  great  ob- 
ject they  hoped  to  discover,  though  all  on  board  were  fearful 
that  the  solution  of  the  mystery  would  disappoint  their  half- 
formed  expectations. 

(2.)  Ever  since  Cook  penetrated  to  the  southward,  in 
January,  1774,  on  the  107th  meridian,  west  longitude,  till  his 
further  progress  was  stopped  by  a  mighty  wall  of  icy  moun- 
tains, which  he  was  unable  to  approach  sufficiently  near  for 
a  careful  or  satisfactory  examination,  the  existence  of  a  vast 
antarctic  continent  has  been  a  reasonable  supposition  with 
navigators  and  geographers,  although  never  positively  as- 
serted. Captain  Wilkes,  indeed,  asks,  in  a  tone  bordering 
closely  upon  assurance — "  Who  was  there  prior  to  1840, 
either  in  this  country  or  in  Europe,  that  had  the  least  idea 
that  any  large  body  of  land  existed  to  the  south  of  New 
Holland  ?"*  It  is  not  necessary  to  impute  to  him  a  desire  to 
magnify  his  discoveries  beyond  their  real  importance ;  this, 
perhaps,  natural  and  excusable  feeling,  may  have  prompted 
his  inquiry ;  but,  however  that  may  be,  it  is  quite  certain 
that  he  is  mistaken.  Dumont  d'Urville,  in  the  account  of 
*  Narrative  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  Vol.  II.  p.  282. 


278  DECEPTIVE    APPEARANCES.  [1840. 

his  expedition  to  the  south  pole,  does  not  even  affect  any- 
where to  conceal  his  expectations  of  the  discovery  of  large 
bodies  of  land.*  Captain  Balleny  was  expressly  sent,  by  his 
principals,  in  search  of  land ;  t  and  the  instructions  of  the 
Board  of  Admiralty  to  Captain  Ross,  clearly  show  that  land 
of  great  extent  was  supposed  to  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  south  pole.t 

Icebergs  were  first  encountered  by  the  American  squadron, 
in  latitude  61°  08'  S.,  and  longitude  162°  32'  E .  Expectation 
was  all  the  while  on  the  quivive  ;  and  on  the  13th  of  January, 
Lieutenant  Ringgold,  in  command  of  the  Porpoise,  then  in  lati- 
tude 65°  08'  S.,  and  longitude  163°  E.,  from  the  great  number 
of  sea-elephants  that  were  visible,  the  discoloration  of  the  water, 
the  dark  earth-colored  veins  and  dusty  appearance  of  the  ice- 
bergs, and  the  hoarse  cry  of  innumerable  penguins  distinctly 
heard  above  the  roar  of  the  ocean,  fancied  he  had  discovered  land, 
and  thought  he  saw  something  like  distant  mountains  to  the 
south-east.  Soundings  of  one  hundred  fathoms,  however, 
gave  no  bottom,  and  the  dense  masses  of  floe-ice  prevented 
any  nearer  approach.  This  was  undoubtedly  a  mere  decep- 
tion, and  the  objects  seen  must  have  been  clouds  of  condensed 
vapor — not  an  unusual  appearance  in  these  high  latitudes — 
hovering  over  the  margin  of  the  ice,  and  unable  to  ascend 
beyond  a  certain  height  in  the  clear  cold  space  above.  In 
confirmation  of  this  supposition,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that 
on  the  6th  of  March,  1841,  Captain  Ross  sailed  directly  over 
and  through  the  mass  of  mountain  land,  which  Lieutenant 
Ringgold,  no  doubt  sincerely,  believed  he  had  discovered. § 

But  on  the  16th  of  January,  appearances  of  land,  much 

*  Expedition  au  Pole  Austral,  passim. 

t  Account  of  Balleny 's  Discovery.  Atheneum  (London),  November,  1839. 

$  Voyage  of  Discovery  and  Research  in  the  Southern  and  Antarctic  Regions, 
Vol.  I.  (Introduction)  p.  25. 

§  After  his  return  from  the  Antarctic  regions — in  April,  1840 — Captain  Wilkes 
addressed  a  letter  to  Captain  Ross,  detailing  his  experience,  and  accompanied 
with  a  copy  of  a  chart,  showing  the  discoveries  of  the  American  squadron. 
The  supposed  land  of  Lieutenant  Ringgold  was  also  included,  and  not  distin- 
guished from  the  other  discoveries,  though  marked  as  Balleny's  land  on  the 


1840.]  DISCOVERY    OP    LAND.  279 

darker  and  altogether  different  from  ice-islands,  were  dis- 
covered from  all  three  vessels.  They  then  continued  in  a 
westerly  course,  coasting  along  the  icy  barriers  that  shut 
them  out  from  the  frozen  regions  of  which  they  caught  fre- 
quent glimpses.  Repeated  but  vain  attempts  were  made  to 
effect  a  landing ;  their  progress  either  being  stopped  by  impass- 
able fields  of  ice,  or  the  massive  icebergs  gathering  round  and 
threatening  to  embay  them.  Wearied  with  cold  and  fatigue, 
and  worn  out  with  excitement,  both  officers  and  men  still 
persisted  in  their  efforts.  On  the  24th  and  25th  of  January 
the  Peacock  lost  her  rudder  in  the  ice,  her  bulwarks  were 
partially  torn  off,  and  she  was  otherwise  so  seriously  disabled, 
that  her  commander  decided  to  return  to  Sydney  forthwith, 
where  he  arrived  with  his  vessel,  in  a  shattered  and  sinking 
condition,  on  the  21st  of  February.  The  Vincennes  and  Por- 
poise kept  on  to  the  west,  and  on  the  30th  of  January  the 
former  discovered  Piner's  Bay,  so  called  by  Captain  Wilkes, 
in  latitude  66°  45'  S.,  and  longitude  140°  02'  30"  E.  The 
name  of  Antarctic  Continent  was  now  first  given  to  the  newly 
found  land.     On  the  14th  of  February,  the  greatest  extent  of 

original.  Hence,  Captain  Ross  was  led  to  regard  it  as  an  original  discovery,  for 
he  could  not  consider  it  as  a  verification  of  Balleny,  inasmuch  as  the  land  seen 
by  him  was  more  than  seventy  miles  distant.  When,  therefore,  the  non-exist- 
ence of  the  land  was  practically  demonstrated  by  Captain  Ross,  a  certain  de- 
gree of  discredit  naturally,  yet  unjustly,  attached  to  the  other  discoveries  of  the 
American  expedition.  This  was  heightened,  too,  by  the  ill-temper  manifested 
by  Captain  Wilkes,  in  his  explanations.  In  the  narrative  of  the  latter,  Captain 
Ross  was  charged  with  a  want  of  courtesy  in  not  acknowledging  the  reception 
of  his  letter ;  whereas  the  British  navigator,  in  the  account  of  his  voyage, 
thanked  Captain  Wilkes  in  the  kindest  terms,  for  his  friendly  attentions,  though 
complaining,  at  the  same  time,  that  both  he  and  d'Urville  had  occupied  the  very 
ground  which  they  both  knew,  in  advance,  the  British  expedition  was  designed 
to  visit.  Captain  Ross'  work  was  not  published  till  long  after  Wilkes'  narrative, 
yet  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  American  commander  should  have  anticipated 
a  want  of  courtesy,  where  none  in  reality  existed  ;  and  that  when  he  had  in- 
cautiously committed  an  error,  he  should  exhibit  so  much  bitterness  and  passion 
in  offering  the  easy  and  simple  explanation  it  was  in  his  power  to  make. — See 
Wilkes'  Narrative,  vol.  ii.  p.  282,  and  App.  No.  24 ;  Synopsis  of  the  Cruise  of 
the  Exploring  Expedition,  p.  21,  et  seq. ;  Defence  of  Captain  Wilkes  before  the 
Court-Martial,  p.  48,  et  seq. ;  Ross'  Voyage,  vol.  i.  pp.  115, 116 — p.  285,  et  seq. — 
and  the  appendix. 


280  balleny's  discovery.  [1840. 

coast  in  sight  at  any  one  time,  computed  to  be  about  seventy- 
five  miles  in  length,  and  its  highest  land  attaining  an  eleva- 
tion of  three  thousand  feet,  was  discovered  in  latitude  65°  59' 
40"  S.,  and  longitude  106°  18'  42".  On  the  same  day,  the 
progress  of  the  Porpoise  was  checked  by  an  immense  wall 
of  ice  trending  far  to  the  north,  and  she  then  commenced  her 
return,  arriving  at  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  the  26th  of  March. 
The  Vincennes  was  stopped  by  the  same  barrier  on  the  17th 
instant,  whereupon  her  head  was  turned  towards  Van  Diemen's 
Land.  Unfavorable  winds  cut  her  off  from  Hobarton,  and  she 
proceeded  to  Sydney,  where  she  joined  the  Peacock  on  the  11th 
of  March. 

During  this  cruise,  a  line  of  coast,  plainly  visible,  except 
at  occasional  intervals,  was  discovered,  between  the  104th  and 
159th  meridians,  eastern  longitude,  and  the  parallels  of  64° 
and  67°.  The  furthest  point  south  which  the  vessels  were 
able  to  reach  was  Disappointment  Bay,  in  latitude  67°  04' 
30"  S.,  and  longitude  147°  30'  E.  A  very  near  approach  was 
made  to  the  magnetic  pole,  which,  according  to  the  observa- 
tions obtained,  was  supposed  to  be  in  about  latitude  70°  S., 
and  longitude  140°  E. 

(3.)  Other  discoveries  by  different  navigators,  prior  or  sub- 
sequent to  the  explorations  of  the  American  squadron,  have 
verified  what  they  saw,  and  contributed  additional  informa- 
tion ;  yet  the  merit  of  having  made  the  first  discovery  of  a 
large  body  of  land,  supposed,  though  not  absolutely  proven, 
to  be  an  extensive  continent,  is  clearly  their  due.  Captain 
Biscoe,  the  discoverer  of  Enderby  Land,  believed  that  he 
saw  detached  portions  of  the  same  land  in  1831,  when  in  the 
brig  Tula.  In  July,  1838,  Captain  Balleny  was  sent  out  from 
London,  with  two  small  vessels,  owned  by  the  Messrs.  Enderby 
and  other  merchants,  under  special  instructions  to  push  as 
far  south  as  possible,  in  search  of  land.  In  obedience  thereto, 
Captain  Balleny  proceeded  along  the  172d  meridian,  east  lon- 
gitude, as  high  as  latitude  69°  S.  Then  turning  westward, 
he  discovered  a  group  of  islands,  five  in  number,  on  the  9th 
of  February,    1839,    in   latitude    60°  44'  S.,  and   longitude 


1840.]  d'urville's  expedition.  281 

163°  11'  E.  He  also  thought  he  saw  appearances  of  land  in 
the  direction  of  the  American  discoveries.  But  the  exami- 
nations of  Biscoe  and  Balleny  were  merely  cursory,  and  there 
is  no  reliable  evidence  that  they  were  not  deceived  by  ice- 
blinks or  fog-banks,  except  the  naked  fact  that  a  continent 
was  subsequently  discovered  in  this  quarter  by  the  exploring 
squadron  under  the  command  of  Captain  Wilkes. 

Another  claimant  to  the  original  discovery  appeared  in  the 
French  admiral,  Dumont  d'Urville,  so  deservedly  held  in  high 
estimation,  while  living,  for  his  numerous  important  discove- 
ries, and  his  great  scientific  acquirements,  and  whose  melan- 
choly fate  elicited  such  general  expressions  of  regret.*  This 
eminent  navigator  left  France,  in  1837,  with  two  corvettes — 
V Astrolabe  and  la  Zelee— on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
Antarctic  seas.  After  visiting  the  southern  Pacific,  and  dis- 
covering Louis  Philippe  Land,  he  proceeded  to  Hobarton  to 
refit  his  vessels  for  another  cruise.  He  sailed  again  from  that 
port,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1840.  On  the  evening  of  the 
19th  instant  he  discovered  land  on  the  142d  meridian,  east 
longitude,  and  near  66°  southern  latitude.t  Attempts  to 
reach  the  main  shore  were  vainly  made,  but  on  the  21st 
instant,  some  of  the  officers  of  the  expedition  succeeded  in 
gaining  a  small  islet  within  a  short  distance  of  the  coast,  and 
obtained  a  number  of  specimens  of  the  granitic  rock  of  which 
it  was  composed.  The  land  was  then  traced  in  a  continuous 
line  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  between 
the  longitudes  of  136°  and  142°  E.,  and  in  about  the  latitude 
of  the  Antarctic  circle.     It  appeared  to  be  entirely  covered 

*  M.  d'Urville  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  fire  that  destroyed  the  cars  on 
the  railroad  between  Paris  and  Versailles,  on  the  8th  day  of  May,  1842. 

f  Voyage  au  Pole  Sud,  ect,  ect,  torn,  viii.,  p.  170  et  seq. — Land  was  first  dis- 
covered by  the  American  squadron,  as  has  been  stated,  on  the  16th  of  January, 
some  distance  further  to  the  east  than  the  Terre  Adelie  of  d'Urville,  although 
Captain  Wilkes  and  his  officers  were  not  fully  convinced  on  the  subject  till  the 
19th  instant,  the  very  day  of  the  French  discovery.  This  fact,  and  that  of  the 
Americans  necessarily  following  in  the  track  of  d'Urville,  after  they  reached,  in 
their  progress  to  the  westward,  the  meridian  where  he  was  on  the  19th  instant, 
though  they  went  far  beyond  him,  are  the  only  really  plausible  arguments  upon 
which  the  French  base  their  claim  to  the  prior  discovery. 


ROSS'    VOYAGE    OP   EXPLORATION.  [1840. 

with  perennial  snow,  destitute  of  vegetation,  and  averaging 
about  thirteen  hundred  feet  in  general  height.  The  name  of 
Terre  Adelie  was  now  given  to  it  by  the  French  commander, 
and  he  continued  his  way  to  the  west.  In  a  few  days  he  dis- 
covered, and  sailed  for  about  sixty  miles  along,  a  solid  wall  of 
ice  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high — probably  near  the  Piner's 
Bay  of  Captain  Wilkes — which  he  believed  to  be  the  crust  or 
covering  of  a  solid  body  of  land,  and  named  Cdte  Clair ee. 
The  discovery  was  soon  after  made  that  the  line  of  coast 
trended  to  the  southward,  and  as  his  crews  were  in  an  en- 
feebled condition,  and  the  vessels,  which,  like  those  of  the 
American  expedition,  were  illy  adapted  for  such  service,  had 
suffered  considerable  damage,  Admiral  d'Urville  issued  orders 
on  the  1st  of  February  to  bear  away  for  the  north,  and  on  the 
17th  of  the  month  he  once  more  anchored  in  the  Derwent. 
Having  repaired  his  vessels  he  set  sail  for  France,  where  he 
arrived  in  safety,  having  performed,  as  it  eventually  proved, 
his  last  voyage.  The  magnetic  observations  of  the  French 
vessels  corresponded  very  nearly  with  those  of  the  American 
squadron,  and  indicated  that  the  magnetic  pole  was  not  far 
from  Terre  Adelie. 

(4.)  But  by  far  the  most  important,  and  the  greatest  amount 
of  information  in  regard  to  the  Antarctic  Continent,  was  ob- 
tained by  Captain  Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  of  the  British  navy, 
and  the  discoverer  of  the  northern  magnetic  pole,  in  three 
successive  voyages,  made  between  the  years  1840  and  1843. 
The  principal  objects  had  in  view  in  fitting  out  his  expedition 
were  the  improvement  of  the  science  of  magnetism,  and  the 
determination  of  the  position  of  the  southern  magnetic  pole. 
He  left  England  with  two  vessels,  the  Erebus  and  Terror,  in 
September  1839,  and  arrived  at  Hobarton  on  the  16th  of  Au- 
gust, 1840.  Unlike  those  of  the  French  and  Americans,  his 
vessels  were  amply  provided  with  suitable  stores  and  neces- 
saries, and  so  strongly  fortified  to  penetrate  the  ice,  that  he  at 
one  time  forced  them  through  a  thick  belt  two  hundred  miles 
across,  which  would  have  completely  destroyed  any  other 
craft,  into  the  open  sea  beyond. 


1840.]  VOLCANIC    MOUNTAINS.  283 

Having  been  apprised  of  the  discoveries  of  the  American 
and  French  squadrons,  and  learning  that  they  had  failed  to 
get  beyond  67°  southern  latitude  in  the  quarter  he  had  select- 
ed for  his  own  operations,  Captain  Ross  determined  to  deviate 
from  his  original  plan.  He  left  Hobarton,  therefore,  on  the 
12th  of  November,  1840  ;  and  entering  the  Antarctic  regions 
still  further  to  the  east,  he  found  himself,  early  in  January, 
1841,  amid  immense  fields  of  ice.  The  first  land  seen  was 
discovered  on  the  11th  instant,  and  consisted  of  a  mountain- 
ous range,  from  seven  to  nine  thousand  feet  high,  whose  sum- 
mits were  covered  with  snow  and  the  intervening  valleys  filled 
with  glaciers,  with  the  bare  rocks  peeping  out  here  and  there 
through  their  wintry  coverings,  reaching  away,  far  beyond  the 
view,  in  a  southeasterly  direction.  In  front  of  the  main  coast, 
at  a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  loomed  up  a  tall  mountain,  like 
some  hoary  sentinel,  called  Mount  Sabine,  which  was  estimated 
to  be  from  seven  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Not  far  distant  was  Possession  Island,  as  it  was  christ- 
ened, in  latitude  71°  56'  S.,  and  longitude  171°  07'  E.,  ap- 
proachable only  on  the  northern  side,  and  covered  with  a  deep 
bed  of  guano  that  emitted  an  intolerable  stench. 

The  28th  of  January,  1841,  was  signalized  by  the  discov- 
ery of  two  lofty  mountains — one  of  which,  called  Mount 
Erebus,  was  12,400  feet  high,  and  an  active  volcano,  and  the 
other,  called  Mount  Terror,  was  an  extinct  volcano  having 
an  elevation  of  10,900  feet.  Mount  Erebus  is  in  about  lati- 
tude 76°  06'  S.,  and  longitude  168°  11'  E.,  and  Mount  Terror 
lies  a  little  further  to  the  east  and  south.  The  former  is  con- 
nected with  the  main  land,  and  is  described  as  presenting  a 
most  grand  and  imposing  spectacle.  The  officers  fancied  they 
saw  the  streams  of  red-hot  lava  ploughing  their  way  through 
the  snows  of  ages,  down  its  corrugated  sides ;  and  they  plainly 
witnessed  the  dark  gyres  and  tall  columns  of  smoke  hurled 
into  the  air,  to  the  height  of  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  mouth  of  the  crater,  where  glowed  un- 
ceasingly the  forked  flames,  whose  meteor  glare  illuminates 
the  profound  darkness  that  broods  over  this  dreary  clime  in 


284  SUBSEQUENT    VOYAGES.  [1810 

the  long  nights  of  winter,  and  literally  and  truly  sheds  its 
light  upon  the  physical  construction  of  the  globe.  Captain 
Ross  might  well  congratulate  himself  upon  the  discovery  of 
this  beacon-fire,  standing,  as  it  were,  at  the  very  outposts  of 
the  world. 

Pursuing  their  westerly  course  still  further,  the  English 
vessels  reached  the  highest  point  of  southern  latitude,  in 
78°  04',  where  they  found  the  way  blocked  by  a  perpendicu- 
lar wall  or  cliff  of  ice,  over  one  thousand  feet  thick,  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles  in  leuglh,  along  whose  base  were  scatter- 
ed wide  fields  of  blocks  and  bergs  of  ice,  which  rose  and  fell 
with  the  restless  waves  that  spent  their  fury  in  vain  against 
the  frozen  bulwarks  that  conSned  them.  For  many  a  weary 
mile,  the  Erebus  and  her  consort  coasted  along  this  ice-bound 
shore,  to  which  Captain  Ross  gave  the  name  of  Victoria  Land, 
inside  the  ice-pack  through  which  they  forced  their  way. 
Sixty-three  days  were  spent  to  the  south  of  the  Antarctic 
circle,  and  the  approach  of  the  winter  season — Captain  Ross 
having  in  vain  sought  for  a  place  where  he  might  remain  till 
the  ensuing  spring — alone  compelled  them  to  return  to  a 
warmer  climate.  On  the  2Sth  of  February,  they  caught  the 
last  glimpse  of  Victoria  Land  as  they  bore  away  to  the  north. 
In  their  subsequent  route,  they  crossed  over  the  land  supposed  to 
have  been  seen  from  the  Porpoise,  and  the  tracks  of  the  Amer- 
ican vessels,  and  on  the  6th  of  August  following,  came  to 
anchor  within  the  head  lands  of  the  Derwent. 

Two  voyages  were  subsequently  made  by  Captain  Ross  in 
these  regions.  In  the  winter  of  1841-42,  he  penetrated  as 
far  south  as  78°  10',  but  was  less  successful  than  on  the  for- 
mer occasion.  At  an  early  period  he  was  entangled  in  an  ice- 
pack through  which  he  pushed  h:s  vessels,  and  from  which  he 
never  emerged  for  a  thousand  miles.  The  barrier  of  ice  was 
traced  ten  degrees  further  to  the  eaet,  when  the  winter  again 
set  in.  In  1842-3  the  third  and  last  aittmpt  was  made  to 
reach  the  pole,  but  this  was  attended  xrith  saA  less  success , 
and  the  persevering  and  undaunted  navigata    wn  oHirjec1  ft 


1840.]  VOYAGE  OF  THE  PAGODA.  285 

abandon  the  ambitious  hope  he  had  cherished,  of  completing 
the  coronal  of  his  fame  by  the  discovery  he  longed  to  achieve. 
He  penetrated  to  latitude  71°  30'  S.,  between  10°  and  20°  of 
west  longitude,  and  from  the  extensive  and  minute  magnetic 
observations  he  had  taken,  assigned  the  position  of  the  south- 
ern magnetic  pole  in  75°  05'  S.,  and  longitude  154°  08'  E. 
Forced  to  content  himself  with  this,  as  his  officers  and  men 
were  well  nigh  exhausted,  he  relinquished  all  further  efforts 
in  this  quarter,  and  returned  to  England. 

In  the  winter  of  1844—45,  Lieutenant  Moore  proceeded 
to  the  Antarctic  regions,  from  Cape  Town,  on  a  scientific  ex- 
pedition, in  the  barque  Pagoda,  hired  for  that  purpose  by  the 
British  government.  He  made  a  little  further  southing,  be- 
tween the  meridian  of  Greenwich  and  120°  east  longitude, 
than  any  other  vessel  had  previously  done,  but  was  unable  to 
reach  the  magnetic  pole,  in  consequence  of  the  pack  ice  and 
bergs  he  encountered.  He  completed  the  observations,  how- 
ever, left  unfinished  by  Captain  Ross,  and  confirmed  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Antarctic  continent  discovered  by  Captain 
Wilkes,  of  which  Victoria  Land  is  probably  a  continuation. 

(5.)  As  one  of  the  results  of  these  various  expeditions  to  the 
Antarctic  seas,  we  have  the  discovery  of  the  vast  feeding 
grounds  of  innumerable  whales,  who  will  probably  soon  be- 
come accustomed  to  be  disturbed  in  their  icy  retreats.  Naviga- 
tion in  these  bleak  latitudes,  where  the  thermometer  ranges  at 
12°  during  the  warmest  summer  month,  and  at  noon  rises  only 
to  14°, — and  where  the  waves  that  break  over  the  vessels  fre- 
quenting their  waters  freeze  as  they  fall  on  the  decks  and 
rigging, — must  always  be  difficult  and  dangerous ;  yet  whale- 
men are  proverbial  for  their  fearlessness  in  encountering  the 
perils  of  the  deep.  Appalling,  therefore,  as  these  obstacles  may 
be,  if  possible  to  be  surmounted,  they  will  both  defy  and  over- 
come them. 

But  of  primary  importance,  in  a  scientific  aspect,  are  the 
magnetic  observations  obtained,  and  the  geological  discoveries 
that  have  been  made.  The  true  position  of  the  southern 
magnetic  pole  has  been  pretty  nearly  ascertained,  and  a  very 


286  GEOLOGY.  [1840 

correct  knowledge  gained  in  regard  to  the  dip  of  the  whole 
southern  hemisphere,  and  the  courses  of  the  variation  lines, 
and  of  the  intersecting  lines  where  they  approach  their  respec- 
tive poles — all  indispensable  to  the  establishment  of  a  com- 
plete and  reliable  theory  of  terrestrial  magnetism. 

(6.)  It  is  quite  evident,  from  the  comparatively  few  well 
authenticated  facts  so  far  established,  that  the  Antarctic  Con- 
tinent is  of  a  volcanic  character,  and  mainly  composed  of 
lava  and  basalt.  Large  masses  of  earth  have  been  seen  on 
the  bergs  near  the  main  shore,  and  boulders  of  granite,  and 
fragments  of  sand  and  gravel,  found  firmly  imbedded  in  the 
ice.  Soundings  obtained  by  the  Peacock,  too,  in  five  and 
eight  hundred  fathoms,  brought  up  granite,  red  clay,  and 
dead  coral.  The  coast  outline  is  exceedingly  bold.  Bluff 
capes  and  promontories  jut  out  into  the  ocean,  behind  which 
the  land  rises  precipitately,  peak  above  peak,  in  stupendous 
mountain  ranges,  whose  steep  escarpments  present  vast  icy 
masses  of  crystallization,  or  are  enveloped  in  perpetual  snow. 

Along  the  coast  there  is  a  belt  of  field  ice,  with  occasion- 
ally an  ice-pack,  averaging  about  fifty  miles  in  width.  In 
this  there  is  but  little  change.  Masses  of  ice  are  constantly 
being  disrupted,  in  the  winter,  by  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  the  air  and  the  water,  and  the  outer  bergs  are 
sometimes  driven  away  by  the  prevailing  southerly  winds 
into  warmer  regions,  where  they  gradually  disappear.  But 
the  stationary  ice  can  scarcely  be  said  to  thaw,  and  congela- 
tion is  constantly  taking  place  to  supply  any  deficiency. 
Large  pools  of  fresh  water,  probably  rain,  in  sufficient  abund- 
ance to  supply  a  navy,  are  often  found  on  the  tops  of  icebergs, 
covered  over  with  a  thin  crust  of  ice. 

(7.)  When  the  icebergs  are  first  disrupted,  they  are  com- 
monly of  a  tabular  formation  ;  but  after  they  have  been  for 
a  long  time  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  waters  and  the  occa- 
sional heat  of  the  sun,  they  present  greater  irregularities, 
and  frequently  assume  the  most  fanciful  appearances.*   Wide 

*  Icebergs  one-third  of  a  mile  in  length.  anJ  frorn  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
two  hundred  feet  high,  are  frequently  seen,  in  the  high  southern  latitudes. 


1840.]  ATMOSPHERIC    PHENOMENA.  287 

holes  are  worn  into  their  fluted  sides,  over  which  depend 
gigantic  icicles  ;  and  as  the  shadows  appear  and  disappear  in 
the  crevices,  with  the  wavy  motion  of  the  sea,  it  requires 
but  little  stretch  of  fancy  on  the  part  of  the  beholder,  to  re- 
gard them  as  fairy  habitations,  or  Gothic  shrines,— or  he  may 
be  reminded  of  that  Neptunian  palace  which  the  genius  of 
Scott  has  hallowed — 

"  That  wondrous  dome, 
Where,  as  to  shame  the  temples  deck'd 
By  skill  of  earthly  architect, 
Nature  herself,  it  seem'd,  would  raise 
A  minster  to  her  Maker's  praise !" 

When  the  sky  is  unobscured  by  the  dense  mists,  and  tha 
heavy  cumulous  clouds,  whose  deep  shadows  are  so  com- 
monly thrown  over  this  chosen  abode  of  the  gloomy  winter, 
and  the  glorious  rays  of  the  sun  are  permitted  to  dart  forth 
in  perfect  freedom,  they  seem  to  run  riot  with  gladness,  and 
the  whole  atmosphere,  the  sky,  the  ice,  and  the  ocean,  fairly 
flicker  with  their  splendor.  And  when  the  long  twilight 
comes  on,  everything  is  adorned  with  their  rich  tintings  of 
puce  and  salmon  color,  till  the  entire  landscape  glows  with 
their  parting  effulgence. 

The  Aurora  Australis  is  also  represented  as  appearing  like 
some  vision  of  enchantment.  It  is  so  brilliant  at  night  that 
the  smallest  print  is  distinctly  legible.  The  upper  points  of 
the  rays  are  often  more  beautifully  attenuated  than  those  of 
the  Aurora  Borealis.  Sometimes  there  is  no  exhibition  of 
color,  and  at  others  the  aurora  is  of  a  yellow  color,  with 
edges  of  the  purest  pink  or  green.  The  coruscations  are 
usually  most  brilliant.  Vivid  flashes  of  a  bright  pink  dart 
upward  continually,  and  tall  streamers  float  along  the  sky, 
from  the  cloud  to  the  zenith,  having  a  tremulous  lateral 
motion,  and  presenting  a  most  brilliant  display  of  all  the 
prismatic  colors. 

(8  )  All  traces  of  vegetation,  unless  exhibiting  itself  in  new 
forms  hitherto  unknown,  disappear  on  entering  this  region  of 
eternal  frost  and  snow.     The  cabbage  (jpringlea  anti-scor- 


288  VEGETABLE    AND    ANIMAL    LIFE.  fl840v 

butica)  of  Kerguelen's  Land,  is,  perhaps,  the  only  plant  that 
flourishes,  with  even  tolerable  vigor  or  luxuriance,  as  high 
as  50°  southern  latitude.  Beyond  this,  only  the  hardiest 
lichens,  and  the  very  lowest  order  of  plants,  are  seen.  Cock* 
burn's  Island,  in  latitude  64°  12'  S.,  and  longitude  59°  49' 
W.,  presents  the  last  appearances  of  vegetation.  Unfriendly 
as  are  the  soil  ana  climate  of  this  bleak  spot,  lichens  are 
found  here  as  high  as  fourteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea; 
but  coldness  and  moisture  seem  to  be  far  less  prejudicial  to 
their  growth  than  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  which  causes  them 
to  become  crisp  and  parched,  so  that  they  crumble  in  pieces  at 
the  slightest  touch. 

The  animal  kingdom  is  much  better  represented.  Here 
may  be  seen  the  extensive  "rookeries,"  as  they  are  termed  by 
seamen,  of  countless  numbers  of  seals ;  the  feeding-grounds, 
abounding  with  animalcules  and  Crustacea,  of  whales  who 
have  never  yet  been  disturbed  by  their  great  enemy,  man ; 
and  the  teeming  abodes  of  penguins  and  petrels,  whose  cries 
are  ever  heard  rising  shrill  and  clear,  as  if  in  proud  defiance, 
above  the  wild  howling  of  the  wintry  blast.  There  are  many 
of  the  large  hunch-back  and  sperm  whales,  and  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  count  the  numerous  seals,  that  may  be  discov- 
ered on  a  pleasant  sunny  day,  enjoying  their  favorite  pastime 
of  basking  on  the  ice.  Sea-lions  and  sea-elephants  are  abund- 
ant. The  former  is  a  large  earless  seal,  having  a  heavy 
mane  like  the  lion  :  the  latter  also  belongs  to  the  seal  family,  ■ 
and  is  sometimes  called  the  elephant  seal ;  it  is  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  long,  and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  the  full-grown  male  possesses  the  power  of  elongat- 
ing his  nose  into  a  proboscis,  or  trunk,  about  twelve  inches 
in  length,  and  hence  the  appellation  which  it  usually  bears, 
has  been  bestowed  upon  it.  The  Antarctic  seas  are  filled 
with  the  molluscous  and  minute  marine  animals  on  which 
the  whales  feed.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  varieties  of 
the  finny  tribe  found  in  their  waters,  is  the  "  killer :"  this  is 
a  fish  about  twenty  feet  long,  of  a  brownish  color  on  the 
back,  and  white  on  the  belly,  having  a  long  dorsal  fin,  and 


1840.]  RENDEZVOUS    IN   THE    BAY    OP    ISLANDS.  289 

possessing  immense  strength  ;  it  often  attacks  one  of  the 
largest  whales,  catching  him  by  the  throat,  and  worrying 
him  to  death,  but,  as  the  whalers  say,  it  contents  itself  with 
devouring  the  tongue  of  its  victim — thus  indicating,  savage 
and  ferocious  as  it  may  be,  the  possession  of  a  most  refined 
epicurean  taste. 

Among  the  wild  fowl  are  albatrosses,  Port  Egmont  hens, 
and  petrels,  in  great  abundance.  Large  flocks  of  capo 
pigeons  are  often  seen.  The  edges  of  the  cliffs  are  filled  with 
the  nests  of  the  pintado  birds  and  rapacious  skua  gulls ;  and 
the  loud  coarse  notes  of  the  innumerable  penguins  make  an 
eternal  din.  The  largest  of  the  penguins  found  here  weigh 
upwards  of  sixty  pounds  each  :  their  flesh  is  of  a  dark  color, 
and  has  a  rank  fishy  flavor. 

(9.)  On  overhauling  the  Peacock  at  Sydney,  it  was  found 
that  extensive  repairs  would  be  necessary.  She  therefore  re- 
mained here,  with  orders  to  follow  the  squadron  to  Tonga- 
taboo,  while  the  Vincennes  sailed  for  New  Zealand  on  the 
19th  of  March.  In  the  morning  of  the  30th  instant,  the 
latter  entered  the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  came  to  anchor  in  the 
Kawa-Kawa  river,  where  she  found  the  Porpoise  and  Flying 
Fish,  and  the  scientific  corps,  looking  for  her  with  some 
anxiety.  The  Peacock,  having  completed  her  repairs,  and 
replenished  her  stock  of  provisions,  sailed  from  Sydney,  on 
the  same  day,  for  the  Tonga  Islands. 

13 


CHAPTER    XII. 

(1.)  Acquisitions  of  England.— (2.)  New  Zealand.  Discovery.  Geography 
— (3.)  Harbors  and  Towns.— (4.)  Soil.  Climate.— (5.)  Population.  Gov- 
ernment.—(6.)  Natives.  Character.  Houses.  Dress.  Customs.— (7.) 
Botany  and  Zoology. — (8.)  Commerce  and  Manufactures. — (9.)  Voyage  to 
Tongataboo. 

(1.)  It  has  been  well  said  that  England  girdles  the  world 
with  a  chain  of  fortifications.  At  home,  though  small  and 
diminutive  in  area,  she  bristles  with  bayonets,  and  forts,  and 
armaments,  and  from  her  prolific  hive  sends  forth  army  after 
army  of  soldiers  ;  yet  the  vicissitudes  of  climate,  and  the 
chances  of  war,  seem  never  to  diminish  the  supply.  Her 
vessels,  too,  are  dispatched  to  every  clime,  and  when  new  dis- 
coveries are  made,  they  are  promptly  occupied  by  her  people. 
Her  indomitable  will  and  untiring  energy  are  rarely  foiled  ; 
and  whatever  spot  on  the  habitable  globe,  in  the  possession 
of  a  weaker  race,  excites  her  ctSpidity,  or  appears  to  be  ne- 
cessary or  convenient  for  the  accomplishment  of  her  projects, 
it  is  doomed,  sooner  or  later,  by  peaceable  or  forcible  means, 
to  fall  under  the  dominion  of  her  flag. 

In  the  East  Indies  she  is  supreme,  and  in  China  her  power 
has  been  felt,  and  is  now  tremblingly  acknowledged.  In  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  she  knows  no  rival ;  and  from  the  Lion's 
Rump  at  Cape  Town,  she  looks  forth  over  the  broad  ocean, 
with  the  air  of  a  conqueror,  whose  superiority  none  question 
or  dispute.  She  has  planted  herself  firmly  on  the  coasts  of 
Africa,  and  of  North  and  South  America ;  and  the  best  of  the 
West  India  islands  are  hers.  Malta  is  no  longer  held  by  the 
knights  hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  but  the  pride  of 
the  Mediterranean  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Briton. 


1840.]  NEW   ZEALAND.  291 

The  rock  of  Gibraltar,  occupied  by  the  soldiery  of  England, 
like  the  Acropolis  of  Corinth,  throws  its  shadow  over  two 
seas  ;*  and  the  banner  of  St.  George,  waving  in  sullen  maj- 
esty over  the  rock  of  St.  Helena,  is  seen  far  out  in  the  Atlantic. 

(2.)  One  of  the  most  recent  acquisitions  of  the  British 
government,  is  New  Zealand,  which  consists  of  a  group  of 
two  large  and  several  smaller  islands  in  the  Southern  Pacific 
ocean,  lying  between  the  parallels  of  35°  and  47°  of  southern 
latitude,  and  166°  and  179°,  east  longitude.  Tasman,  in 
1642,  was  the  first  discoverer  of  New  Zealand,  but  he  ob- 
tained very  little  information  in  regard  to  its  extent  and  char- 
acter. Captain  Cook,  however,  made  two  voyages  hither, 
in  1769  and  1774 ;  his  examinations  of  the  islands  and  the 
neighboring  waters  were  carefully  and  critically  made,  and 
the  real  merit  of  the  discovery  may,  therefore,  with  much 
justice,  be  claimed  for  him.  At  any  rate,  its  substantial  ad- 
vantages have,  after  some  delay,  accrued'  to  the  government 
by  which  he  was  commissioned. 

It  is  mentioned  as  a  singular  fact,  that  the  natives  had  no 
name  originally  for  either  of  the  islands,  or  for  any  part  of  the 
country.  Cook  and  d'Urville  were  evidently  ignorant  of  this, 
and  gave  them  appellations  which  they  had  heard  among  the 
natives,  and  supposed  to  be  applied  to  the  islands.  Until  the 
English  occupation,  the  two  larger  islands,  however,  were  gen- 
erally designated  among  sailors  and  whalemen,  as  the  North, 
and  the  South  Islands  ;  and  the  small  island,  still  further  south, 
was  called  Stewart's  Island,  after  the  master  of  an  English  ves- 
sel, who  assisted  the  natives  of  the  northern  island  in  a  bloody 
foray  among  the  inhabitants  of  South  Island.  The  present 
masters  of  the  group  have  latterly  provided  names  for  their 
new  acquisitions.  North  Island  is  now  called  New  Ulster  ;  the 
middle,  or  South  Island,  New  Munster  ;  and  Stewart's  Island, 
New  Leinster.  New  Ulster  is  the  widest  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal islands,  being  about  three  hundred  miles  in  its  greatest 

"  Qua  summas  caput  Acrocorinthos  in  auras 
Tollit,  et  altema.  geminum  marc  protegit  umbra." 

P.  Statius,  Thebaid.,  lib.  vii. 


292  GEOGRAPHY.  [1840 

breath,  but  New  Munster  is  considerably  the  largest.  The 
area  of  all  the  islands  is  estimated  at  about  86,000  square 
miles. 

Along  the  centre  of  New  Munster,  throughout  its  whole 
extent,  and  along  rather  more  than  the  southern  half  of  New 
Ulster,  runs  a  mountainous  range,  from  south  to  north,  which 
has  every  appearance  of  having  been  once  continuous.  Sub- 
ordinate hilly  ranges  lie  on  either  side,  and,  here  and  there, 
are  detached  outliers  of  vast  dimensions.  Along  the  line  of 
the  main  cordillera  are  tall  mountains,  overtopping  their  com- 
panions, and  lifting  their  heads  into  the  region  of  perpetual 
snow.  The  loftiest  peaks  are  the  '  Lookers-on,'  and  Mount 
Egmont,  lying  near  the  southern  extremity  of  New  Ulster, 
which  are  supposed  to  be  from  eight  to  fourteen  thousand  feet 
high.  The  country  at  the  bases  of  the  mountains  is  made 
up  of  plain,  pasture,  marsh,  and  woodland.  Some  of  the 
hills  are  barren,  or  covered  with  a  thick  growth  of  fern,  but 
they  are  generally  wooded  to  their  very  summits ;  and  there 
are  immense  forests  spread  out  along  the  flanks  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, which  climb  the  sides  of  the  highest  mountains,  and 
encircle  their  snow-tipped  peaks  with  rich  fringing  borders 
and  belts  of  evergreen. 

All  the  islands,  so  far  as  known,  are  well  watered.  Small 
brooklets  thread  their  way  down  the  sides  of  the  great  central 
mountain  range  that  intersects  New  Ulster  and  New  Mun- 
ster, and  singing  ever  so  many  a  pretty  refrain,  as  they  wind 
out  and  in  among  the  nooks  and  fissures,  or  spring  from  rock 
to  rock,  finally  descend  to  the  plain  beneath.  Here  larger 
streams  are  formed,  by  the  union  of  several  of  the  smaller 
torrents,  which  proceed  on  their  oceanward  course, — now 
lazily  crossing  some  sandy  barren,  now  flashing  through  the 
interstices  of  the  leafy  forest,  now  half  hidden  beneath  the 
long  waving  fern,  and  now  leaping  gayly  forth  into  the  sun- 
light, and  bounding  over  the  rocks  and  precipices,  in  pictur- 
esque falls  and  charming  cascades,  till  at  length  they  mingle 
their  waters  with  those  of  "  the  dark,  deep  sea." 

Five  principal  rivers,  and  numerous  minor  streams,  debouch 


1840.]  HARBORS.  293 

into  the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  names  of  the  former  are  Kawa- 
Kawa,  Kiri-Kiri,  Loytangi,  Waicaddie,  and  Warooa.  There 
are  some  fine  cascades  in  the  last  mentioned  stream,  and  in 
the  Kiri-Kiri  there  is  a  magnificent  waterfall  to  which  the 
natives  have  given  the  poetic  appellation  of  Wani-Wam,  or 
"  the  waters  of  the  rain-bow."  One  hundred  and  forty 
miles  south  of  the  Bay  of  Islands,  is  the  Thames,  or  Waihou, 
and  on  the  west  side  of  the  island  is  the  Hokianga,  both  of 
which  are  considerable  streams.  The  tide  flows  up  many  of 
the  smaller  rivers,  and  the  larger  ones  are  navigable  for 
some  distance  by  vessels  of  heavy  burden.  The  Hokianga, 
however,  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth  which  obstructs  the  naviga- 
tion, though  it  is  ascended  by  boats  as  high  as  tide  water, 
thirty  miles  up. 

(3.)  Perhaps  there  is  no  country  in  the  world,  having  an 
equal  extent  of  coast,  that  possesses  more  or  finer  harbors 
and  roadsteads.  This  is  especially  true  of  New  Ulster,  whose 
shores  are  generally  iron-bound,  and  quite  dangerous  to  those 
not  familiar  with  the  channels  and  openings.  Its  harbors  are 
principally  formed  by  indentations  in  the  coast.  The  chief 
importance  is  justly  attached  to  the  Bay  of  Islands,  on  the 
eastern  shore.  This  is  shaped  like  an  open  hand  in  the  act 
of  grasping  the  island,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  great 
number  of  rocky  islets  with  which  it  is  studded.  At  its  en- 
trance, which  is  about  eleven  miles  in  width,  it  has  Cape  Brett 
on  the  south,  and  Point  Pocock  on  the  north.  It  is  spacious 
and  commodious,  affording  ample  room  for  vessels  to  beat  in, 
and  is  surrounded  with  bays  and  inlets,  some  larger  and  some 
smaller,  extending  in  every  direction,  and  presenting  secure 
places  of  retreat  when  the  winds  mutter  their  hoarse  wail, 
ings,  and  the  loud  roar  of  the  beating  surge  is  echoed  from 
headland  to  headland. 

Within  the  Bay  of  Islands,  the  anchorages  most  frequented 
are  the  roadstead  of  Tepuna,  on  the  north  side  of  the  bay, 
and  opposite  to  the  mission  of  that  name  ;  and  the  Bay  of 
Kororarika,  and  the  Kawa-Kawa  river,  on  the  southern  shore. 
Other  numerous  inlets  and  indentations  afford  deep  and  safe 


294  towns.  [1840 

anchorage  grounds.  An  occasional  patch  of  marshy  ground 
may  be  seen  along  the  shores  of  the  bay,  but  the  scenery  is 
for  the  most  part  bold  and  picturesque, — the  surrounding 
hills  averaging  from  three  to  five  hundred  feet  in  height,  and 
at  the  head  of  the  bay  attaining  an  elevation  of  one  thousand 
feet.  Forests  of  magnificent  timber,  and  pretty  groves,  amidst 
which  the  beautiful  cottages  of  the  foreign  residents  are 
tastefully  disposed,  give  to  all  a  most  pleasing  effect. 

Wangarara  Bay,  thirty  miles  south  of  Cape  Brett,  is  said 
to  be  still  safer  than  the  Bay  of  Islands.  It  is  a  deep  inden- 
tation running  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  is  separated  from 
the  ocean  by  a  narrow  belt  of  high  and  rocky  land.  The  an- 
chorage is  good  six  miles  from  the  entrance,  which,  though 
but  one  mile  in  width,  is  deep  and  free  from  danger. — Cloudy 
Bay,  near  the  south  end  of  New  Ulster,  is  a  great  place  of 
resort  for  whalers,  many  of  whom  live  there  ;  and  Port 
Cooper,  on  the  north  side  of  Bank's  Peninsula,  is  also  an  ex- 
cellent harbor. 

First  in  commercial  importance,  of  the  towns  in  New 
Zealand,  is  Kororarika,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Bay  of 
Islands.  It  has  the  deepest  water,  in  its  bay,  and  is  the  best 
sheltered  from  the  wind.  It  contains  over  one  hundred  houses, 
and  other  buildings,  among  which  is  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel, 
and  is  filled  with  a  heterogeneous  population,  numbering 
about  one  thousand,  and  made  up  of  civilized  and  uncivilized 
natives,  foreign  residents,  escaped  convicts  from  the  British 
penal  settlements,  and  runaway  sailors.  So  famous  was  it, 
at  one  time,  for  the  scenes  of  iniquity  and  degradation  it  con- 
stantly presented,  that  it  was  called  "  Black-guard  Beach  ;" 
but  since  the  British  government  have  taken  possession,  a 
police  similar  to  that  at  Sydney  has  been  introduced,  and  a 
much  better  state  of  things  now  prevails. 

Pahia,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  is  very  pleasantly 
situated:  the  principal  missionary  establishment  of  the  Epis- 
copal church  is  located  at  this  place ,  «nd  here  are  the  resi- 
dences of  those  attached  to  the  missions  <*nd  their  printing 
presses.     East  of  Pahia  is  a  new  town,  calla*  Victoria,  which 


1840.]  ceology.  295 

at  first  grew,  under  the  impetus  of  speculation,  with  con- 
siderable rapidity.  Its  progress  has  since  been  checked  to 
some  extent,  but  it  must  eventually  become  quite  a  town. 
Eleven  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Islands,  up  the  Waicaddie 
river,  is  Waicaddie  Pa,  probably  the  largest  native  town  in 
the  islands.  It  is  a  neat  and  cleanly  place,  and,  as  might  be 
presumed  from  this  fact,  has  a  prosperous  mission  estab- 
lishment. 

Auckland,  the  capital  of  New  Zealand,  is  situated  on  the 
Waitemata  river,  which  affords  it  a  spacious  harbor,  in  lati- 
tude 36°  5V  27"  8.,  and  longitude  174°  45'  20"  E. :  it  is  a 
thriving  town,  and  contains  between  two  and  three  thousand 
inhabitants.  The  other  principal  stations  are  Port  Nicholson, 
which  has  upwards  of  five  thousand  inhabitants,  Port  Nelson, 
and  New  Plymouth. 

(4.)  Volcanic  phenomena  may  be  witnessed  almost  every- 
where in  the  interior.  There  is  an  active  volcano  on  the  Bay 
of  Plenty,  on  the  east  coast  of  New  Ulster,  and  at  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  the  island  there  are  a  great  number  of  coni- 
cal hills,  from  three  to  five  hnndred  feet  high,  with  small  cavi- 
ties in  their  tops,  which  appear  to  be  extinct  craters.  Cellular 
lava,  and  lava  in  boulders,  are  abundant.  In  those  districts, 
too,  where  these  indications  of  a  volcanie  origin  are  more 
conclusive,  there  are  hot  springs,  resembling  the  geysers  of 
Iceland,  the  waters  of  some  of  which  rise  to  the  boiling  point, 
and  are  used  by  the  natives  in  cooking.*  The  coasts  are 
lined  with  dark  basaltic  rocks,  which  are  worn  into  various 
shapes  by  the  constant  attrition  of  the  waves.  Quantities 
of  pumice  stone  are  found,  and  it  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
polishing  their  spears.  Quartz,  iron,  and  iron  pyrites,  have 
been  discovered  imbedded  in  the  soil.  Coal  is  plentiful  in  the 
middle  island,  which  also  furnishes  the  green  talc,  both  in 
lamins  and  of  a  loose  form,  of  which  the  natives  make  some 

*  About  fifteen  miles  west  of  the  Bay  of  Islands  is  the  hot  spring  of  Taiaimi, 
which  is  said  to  be  an  emission  of  heated  gas  bubbling  up  through  :ne  water, 
and  thus  giving  the  latter  a  boiling  appearance.  Sulphur  is  abundant  in  the 
vicinity,  and  a  slight  crust  of  alum  is  formed.  The  water  is  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  iron.     The  gas  has  no  smell,  neither  is  it  inflammable. 


296  SOIL    AND   CLIMATE.  [1840. 

of  their  weapons  and  ornaments.  Manganese,  alum,  sulphur, 
slate,  copper,  whinstone,  granite,  and  marble,  are  quite  com- 
mon ;  and  clay,  suitable  for  making  bricks,  is  easily  obtained 
in  every  part  of  the  islands. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Bay  of  Islands,  the  rocky  subsoil  is 
compact  and  argillaceous,  and  it  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
stiff  clay.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  craters  the  land  is- 
much  more  productive  than  elsewhere.  On  the  ridges  and 
elevated  plains,  the  upper  stratum  is  thin,  on  account  of  its 
being  washed  into  the  valleys  and  gulleys,  that  divide  or  in- 
tersect them,  by  the  frequent  rains.  Marshes  alternate  now 
and  then  with  the  rocky  bluffs  and  precipices  along  the  coast, 
and  are  often  met  with  on  the  banks  of  the  streams.  In  gen- 
eral, the  soil  may  be  said  to  be  a  rich  yellow  loam  or  vegeta- 
ble mould,  very  fertile,  and  well  adapted  to  the  production  of 
all  the  vegetables,  and  most  of  the  grains,  raised  in  Europe 
and  America. 

Though  the  climate  of  New  Zealand  is  changeable,  it  is 
temperate  and  healthy ;  being  analogous  to  that  of  France, 
southern  England,  and  the  middle  states  of  our  own  country, 
and  therefore  well  adapted  to  European  constitutions.  At 
Auckland,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  59° ;  in  the 
summer  months  it  averages  about  67°,  and  in  the  winter  about 
52°.  The  oppressive  heats  of  the  mid-day  at  Sydney,  and  the 
long  continued  droughts  that  parch  and  wither  up  the  vege- 
tation of  the  Australian  continent,  are  unknown.  Of  moisture 
there  is  a  great  abundance.  North-easterly  and  south-westerly 
gales  prevail  at  every  change  of  the  moon,  and  almost  al- 
ways bring  heavy  rains,  particularly  in  the  winter  season. 
In  the  interior,  the  weather  is  much  colder,  but  is  also  mora 
equable. 

Nevertheless,  on  the  whole,  the  climate  may  be  pronounced 
salubrious,  and  decidedly  favorable  to  longevity.  In  some 
situations  scrofulous  and  glandular  affections  are  common ; 
pectoral  diseases,  rapid  consumptions,  phthisis,  pleurisy  and 
rheumatism,  are  by  no  means  rare ;  yet,  after  all,  most  of  the 
prevalent  forms  of  disease  have  been  either  introduced  by 


1840.]  population.  297 

Europeans,  or  occasioned  by  the  habits  and  vices  which  they 
nave  imported. 

(5.)  It  admits  of  great  doubt,  whether  the  native  popula- 
tion of  New  Zealand  comes  up  to  150,000,  which  is  the  num- 
ber usually  fixed  upon,  though  some  estimates  reduce  it 
nearly  as  low  as  100,000.  The  white,  or  European  popula- 
tion, occupying  New  Ulster,  which  has  alone  been  regularly 
colonized,  is  not  far  from  twenty  thousand. 

At  the  general  peace  in  Europe,  the  claims  of  Great  Bri- 
tain to  the  different  islands  included  in  the  term  of  New  Zea- 
land, under  and  by  virtue  of  the  discovery  of  Cook,  were 
recognized.  No  effort  was  made,  however,  to  enforce  them 
by  occupation  and  possession,  till  the  year  1833,  when  a  res- 
ident, subordinate  to  the  authorities  of  New  South  Wales, 
but  clothed  with  limited  powers,  was  sent  thither.  The 
islands  had  already  become  infested  with  runaway  convicts 
and  sailors,  and  marauders  of  every  dye  and  description.  Out- 
rages were  daily  committed  on  the  persons  and  property  of  the 
natives  ;  the  latter  were  fast  learning  to  imitate  the  vices 
and  crimes  of  the  outlaws,  who  both  persecuted  and  demoral- 
ized them ;  and  drunkenness,  with  its  consequent  evils, 
crimes,  and  wretchedness,  was  becoming  everywhere  prev- 
alent. Here  and  there,  where  the  missionary  stations  were 
established,  and  their  influence  felt,  bright  spots  appeared 
amidst  the  moral  darkness  that  overshadowed  the  land  ;  but 
beyond  their  limits,  there  was  nothing  to  relieve  the  general 
depravity,  and  sensuality,  licentiousness,  and  excess,  rejoiced 
in  one  continued  holiday. 

British,  American,  and  French  whalers,  frequently  visited 
the  islands,  but  they  were  liable  to  be  molested  by  the  free- 
booters and  their  native  retainers  ;  resistance  often  provoked 
renewed  aggressions ;  and  they  were  sometimes  attacked  and 
plundered. 

Combinations  were  likewise  formed,  principally  in  New 
South  Wales,  to  purchase  land  of  the  natives.  Associations 
of  this  character,  by  the  grossest  swindling  and  imposition, 
obtained  the  control  of  extensive  tracts  in  the  northern  island 

13* 


298  GOVERNMENT.  [1840. 

Influenced  by  their  representations,  settlers  emigrated  in  con- 
siderable numbers  from  New  South  "Wales,  and  the  other 
Australian  colonies ;  but  colonization,  so  far  from  keeping 
pace  with  speculation,  was  completely  distanced  by  it.  Mat- 
ters were  in  this  position,  in  1839,  and  would  probably  have 
continued  to  remain  so ;  but  at  that  time  it  was  reported, 
either  with  or  without  sufficient  cause,  that  the  French  gov- 
ernment contemplated  taking  possession  of  the  southern 
island,  and  planting  a  colony  there.  The  British  authorities 
promptly  interfered ;  a  colonial  organization  subordinate  to 
that  of  New  South  Wales  was  formed  in  January,  1840 ; 
and  Captain  Hobson,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  was  appointed 
lieutenant  governor  of  the  new  dependency. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  lieutenant  governor  at  the  Bay  of 
Islands,  he  issued  his  proclamation,  announcing  that  all 
future  purchases  of  land  from  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  would 
be  absolutely  void,  unless  made  through  the  British  local  gov- 
ernment. A  commission  was  then  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  validity  of  all  claims  to  land,  under  instructions  to  recognize 
and  confirm  those  only  which  were  founded  on  just  and  equi- 
table considerations,  with  the  proviso,  also,  that  no  claim 
should  be  allowed  for  a  greater  extent  than  twenty-five  hun- 
dred and  sixty  acres.  The  lieutenant  governor  likewise  ob- 
tained from  the  principal  chiefs,  a  cession  to  the  British  mon- 
arch, of  the  paramount  right  of  sovereignty  in  the  islands, 
and  extinguished  the  native  titles  to  large  bodies  of  land. 
These  government  lands  were  divided  into  suitable  tracts, 
and  disposed  of  at  auction,  to  the  settlers,  and  the  immigrants 
who  were  daily  arriving. 

Since  this  formal  occupation  by  the  British,  a  more  healthy 
state  of  things  has  existed  in  New  Zealand.  In  April,  1841, 
it  was  separated  from  New  South  Wales,  and  placed  under 
a  governor  possessing  similar  powers  with  the  chief  executive 
officers  in  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain.  With  the  governor, 
the  colonial  secretary  and  treasurer,  the  attorney  general,  and 
three  senior  justices  of  the  peace,  constitute  the  legislative 
council,  by  whom  all  laws  and  regulations,  of  minor  impor- 


1840.]  PERSONAL    APPEARANCE.  299 

tance,  are  enacted.  The  annual  expense  of  administering 
the  government  exceeds  fifty  thousand  pounds  sterling. 

(6.)  Ethnologically  considered,  the  native  New  Zealanders 
may  be  classed  as  belonging  to  the  Malay  family,  and  they 
are  undeniably  the  best  specimens  of  the  race.  The  men  are 
tall,  well- formed  and  athletic ;  many  of  the  chiefs  are  up- 
wards of  six  feet  high ;  and  all  possess  great  strength  and 
activity.  The  women  are  likewise  well  shaped,  but  they 
lack  the  fulness  of  muscle,  and  the  soft  rounded  contour,  wit- 
nessed among  other  Polynesians.  Their  color  varies  in  indi- 
viduals, from  a  dark  chestnut  to  a  light  copper  or  brunette, 
and  resembles  very  nearly  that  of  the  European  gypsy,  or 
the  Eurasian  in  India.  They  have  round  faces,  high  fore- 
heads sloping  backwards,  aquiline  noses  full  at  the  point, 
large  lips,  and  fine  white  teeth.  Their  eyes  are  black,  strong, 
and  piercing.  Their  hair  is  black  and  commonly  straight, 
but  sometimes  thick,  bushy,  and  curly ;  that  of  the  women  is 
frequently  fine,  soft,  and  silky.  Some  crop  their  hair,  leav- 
ing only  a  small  bunch  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  others 
suffer  it  to  grow  long.  Whiskers  and  beards  are  not  con- 
sidered at  all  in  good  taste  among  the  New  Zealand  ex- 
quisites. Tattooing  is  practiced,  by  all  who  can  afford  the 
expense,  and  often  gives  a  dark  expression  to  the  counte- 
nance, where  it  does  not  really  exist.  The  men  ornament 
their  faces  and  arms,  and  their  whole  bodies  and  limbs,  from 
the  navel  downwards ;  but  the  women  rarely  tattoo  any  other 
parts  of  their  persons  except  the  mouth  and  the  pubes — the 
latter  taking  place  on  their  arrival-  at  the  age  of  puberty — 
though  a  few  ornamental  devices  about  the  wrists  and  ankles 
are  occasionally  seen.  They  pay  little  regard  to  personal 
cleanliness,  rarely  ever  bathe,  besmear  themselves  with  grease 
and  dirt,  and  seem  to  delight  in  being  filthy. 

Portions  of  the  middle  island,  or  New  Munster,  are  said  to 
be  inhabited  by  individuals  evidently  of  the  Papuan  race, 
who  differ  widely  from  the  true  New  Zealanders,  and  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  native&  of  Australia,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 


300  CHARACTER.  [1840 

"We  have  different  accounts  in  regard  to  the  cnaracter  of 
the  New  Zealander  ;  some  pronouncing  him  vindictive,  crafty, 
and  treacherous ;  and  others  again  insisting  that  he  is  frank, 
generous,  and  confiding.  Probably  all  these  traits  are  by 
turns  displayed.  The  fierce  and  bloody  conflicts,  which  are 
known  to  have  taken  place  between  the  different  tribes,  in- 
dicate a  warlike  disposition.  They  are  exceedingly  proud, 
and  when  insulted,  inclined  to  be  revengeful ;  yet  they  are 
hospitable  to  strangers,  and  seem  to  know  how  to  appreciate 
kind  treatment.  Though  practicing  infanticide,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  they  are  strongly  attached  to  their  children. 
Honesty  is  not  one  of  their  failings ;  but  they  are  somewhat 
given  to  trickishness  in  their  dealings,  and  their  intercourse 
with  the  whites  has  hardly  contributed  to  divest  them  of  it. 
The  men  are  capable  of  enduring  fatigue,  yet  as  their  wants 
are  few  and  easily  supplied,  they  are  naturally  indolent ;  the 
labor  and  drudgery,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  Polynesia,  and 
among  all  savage  races,  being  performed  by  the  weaker,  more 
suffering,  yet  less  complaining,  part  of  humanity. 

A  fondness  for  curiosities  and  ornaments  is  characteristic 
of  both  sexes.  Besides  tattooing  their  persons,  they  bore 
holes  in  their  ears,  in  which  are  inserted  small  rings  of  jade 
or  talc,  or  shark's  teeth  ;  these  are  tipped  with  sealing  wax, 
or  ornamented  with  white  and  red,  or  other  bright  colored 
feathers.  The  principal  chiefs  and  their  wives  wear  green 
talc  stones,  called  heitikis,  depending  from  their  necks  ;  these 
are  carved  so  as  to  resemble  a  human  figure  sitting  cross- 
legged;  they  are  held  very  sacred,  and  with  the  medra,  a 
short  cleaver  or  club,  are  handed  down  as  heirlooms,  from 
father  to  son.  Acquisitiveness  is  a  prominent  trait  among 
them,  and  they  are  always  ready  for  trading  and  bartering. 
They  will  sell  everything  they  have,  even  their  sacred 
heitikis.  At  one  time  a  considerable  trade  was  carried  on 
in  New  Zealand  curiosities,  which  were  purchased  at  the 
islands,  and  exported  to  Australia,  Europe,  and  America, 
Prominent  among  the  articles  of  traffic  wero  the  tattooed 
heads  of  their  chiefs,  which  commanded  very  high  prices  j 


J 840.]  MISSIONARY    INFLUENCE.  301 

but  the  supply  has  recently  been  cut  off,  in  consequence  of 
the  absolute  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  them  by  the  British 
authorities. 

Comparatively  few  of  the  vices  usually  witnessed  among  a 
savage  people,  are  observed  here.  Cannibalism  and  infant- 
icide were  formerly  very  common,  and  they  are  now  practiced 
in  those  districts  remote  from  the  white  settlements,  though 
they  are  gradually  decreasing.  The  New  Zealand  chiefs, 
and  many  of  the  common  people,  are  polygamists,  yet  always 
having  one  favorite  wife.  They  are  very  jealous  of  their 
marital  rights,  and  adultery  is  punished  by  the  death  of  the 
offending  parties,  and  often  of  their  friends.  The  efFects  of 
dissipation  are  plainly  visible  among  those  natives  who  have 
adopted  the  habits  and  imitated  the  practices  of  the  abandoned 
whites.  Since  1815,  missionaries  have  been  laboring  among 
them  with  considerable  success.  In  1843,  there  were  a  bishop 
and  twelve  clergymen  of  the  established  church,  and  about 
seventy  ministers  of  the  Roman  Catholic,  Church  Missionary, 
Wesleyan  and  Scotch  Churches.  Wherever  the  influence 
of  the  missionaries  has  extended,  though  their  labors  have 
not  been  as  practically  directed  as  they  might  have  been,  a 
marked  change  is  observable.  As  the  natives  have  been  so 
much  accustomed  to  receiving  presents,  they  sometimes  ex- 
pect to  be  paid  for  their  good  conduct,  and  their  zeal  in  at- 
tending to  their  devotional  duties.  Gifts  and  proselytes  are 
often  made  at  the  same  time.  But  all  those  who  have  em- 
braced Christianity,  or  regularly  attend  church  services,  are 
much  more  virtuous  and  happy  than  the  other  natives ;  the 
men  are  more  industrious,  and  more  ready  to  share  the 
burdens  of  their  wives,  while  the  latter  are  better-looking  and 
lighter  of  heart,  and  no  longer  seek  to  check  the  jocund 
sprightliness  of  their  daughters,  by  pointing  them  to  a  sad 
destiny — a  dark  future  of  misery  and  care. 

In  intellectual  endowments  they  are  by  no  means  deficient. 
They  possess  a  great  deal  of  mechanical  skill  and  ingenuity, 
though  exhibiting  it,  hitherto,  rather  in  the  construction  of 
their  richly  carved  and  ornamented  canoes,  and  their  fine  and 


302  INTELLECTUAL    ENDOWMENTS.  [1840. 

delicate  mats,  than  in  the  erection  of  their  habitations.  They 
have  shown  a  singular  aptitude  in  accustoming  themselves  to 
the  usages  of  civilized  life.  Of  poetry  they  have  an  abund- 
ance, chiefly  of  a  lyrical  kind  ;  rude  it  is,  indeed,  yet  they 
are  not  entire  strangers  to  metre  and  quantity.  They  have 
a  passionate  attachment  for  music,  and,  in  fact,  noise  of  any 
kind  is  scarcely  ever  unwelcome  to  them.  Their  voices  are 
monotonous,  and  when  singing  pitched  in  a  high  key.  They 
have  their  war  dances  and  love  dances,  and  sometimes  sham 
rights  :  these  are  much  like  exhibitions  of  a  similar  character 
throughout  Polynesia,  very  picturesque  by  candlelight,  but 
not  bearing  the  full  glare  of  day,  and  always  tiresome  on 
repetition. 

It  is  customary,  however,  among  the  New  Zealanders,  on 
almost  every  occasion  of  ceremony,  be  it  a  funeral  festivity, 
or  a  dance,  to  intersperse  the  proceedings  with  discharges  of 
fire  arms,  the  noise  produced  by  which  seems  to  afford  them 
real  delight. 

Surprising  though  it  may  be,  they  have  a  kind  of  astronomy 
among  them  ;  and  like  all  Polynesians,  they  appear  to  have  a 
faint,  though  imperfect  idea  of  the  creation.  In  regard  to 
their  own  origin,  they  have  no  tradition,  except  that  their  an- 
cestors came  from  the  east  in  canoes,  sewed  together  with 
sennit.*  While  they  have  given  no  names  to  their  islands, 
strangely  enough,  there  is  not  a  single  thing  in  the  animal  or 
vegetable  creation,  for  which  they  have  not  a  distinct  appella- 
tive term  by  which  it  is  generally  known. 

There  was  not  originally,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  any 

*  They  have  likewise  a  tradition,  that  their  kumara,  or  sweet  potato,  was 
brought  from  the  east.  Might  not  these  islands,  then,  have  been  visited  by 
South  American  Indians,  who  found  them  peopled  with  Malays,  or  Papuans, 
and  from  whom  the  present  inhabitants  have  descended  ? — or  did  the  ancestors 
of  the  latter  come  from  some  of  the  intermediate  isles  of  the  Pacific  1  The  ease 
with  which  the  New  Zealander  and  the  Tahitian  converse,  on  first  meeting  each 
other,  has  before  been  remarked  (ante,  p.  178) ;  and  it  is  by  no  means  improbable, 
that  the  canoes,  the  memory  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  traditions  of  the  former, 
may  have  originally  come  from  the  Society  Islands.  Nevertheless,  how  true  it 
is,  that  the  more  ethnology  is  studied,  the  more  speculative  it  seems  to  become. 


1840.]  FORTIFIED   TOWNS    AND    HOUSES.  303 

general  head  among  the  natives,  even  those  who  were  evi- 
dently of  the  same  race  ;  but  they  were  divided  into  tribes, 
distinguished  by  separate  names,  which  were  governed  by 
principal  chiefs,  or  arekees,  and  between  which  fierce  and  ex- 
terminating wars  often  took  place.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  the  people  were  slaves,  being  subject  to  chiefs  who  were 
owners  of  the  soil,  and  had  the  power  to  dispose  of  their  lands, 
and  alienate  their  servants,  at  will.  These  chiefs  were  them- 
selves dependent  on  the  arekees,  or  head  chiefs,  but  often 
proved  refractory  and  disobedient  subjects. 

Fortified  towns,  called  pas,  are  the  permanent  places  of  resi- 
dence of  the  natives.  They  consist  of  collections  of  huts  or 
houses,  built  closely  together,  on  high  promontories  or  insu- 
lated hills ;  such  a  position  being  usually  selected  as  will  af- 
ford the  greatest  natural  resistance  to  an  attacking  enemy 
These  clusters  of  houses,  or  pas,  are  surrounded  and  protected 
by  palisades,  or  upright  stakes,  perhaps  ten  feet  high,  driven 
firmly  into  the  ground.  Some  of  the  inclosures  contain  as  many 
as  two  or  even  three  hundred  huts.  The  main  entrance,  or 
gateway,  opening  through  the  row  of  palisades,  is  commonly 
flanked  with  larger  posts,  on  which  are  sometimes  carved  dis- 
torted representations  of  human  figures.  "Within  the  princi- 
pal inclosure,  there  are  frequently  minor  ones,  containing  five 
or  six  houses,  separated  from  each  other  by  intervening  alleys 
or  walks,  from  two  to  four  feet  wide.  Formerly,  when  the 
natives  were  ignorant  of  the  use  of  fire  arms,  a  pa  may 
have  been  pretty  secure  against  attack,  but  it  would  now 
form  a  feeble  defence. 

The  huts  of  the  New  Zealander  are  most  sorry  affairs. 
They  are  of  an  oblong  shape,  low  and  small,  blackened  inside 
and  out  with  soot  and  smoke,  and  defiled  from  top  to  bottom, 
with  grease,  filth,  and  dirt,  of  every  kind.  Those  of  the  largest 
class  are  only  twenty  feet  long,  by  twelve  feet  broad.  In 
erecting  them,  they  begin  with  the  frame,  which  consists  of 
four  posts  driven  into  the  ground  at  the  corners.  These  pro- 
ject from  two  to  five  feet  above  the  ground,  and  are  connected 
by  horizontal  beams  firmly  secured  in  their  places  with  twine 


304  dress.  [1840. 

or  sennit.  The  rafters  are  laid  upon  the  horizontal  beams, 
and  ascend  upwards  by  a  slight  slope  to  the  ridge  pole,  which 
is  laid  upon  two  or  three  posts  set  on  a  line  running  through 
the  centre  of  the  building.  The  roof  descends  on  all  sides, 
and  is  composed  of  rush  thatching.  Smaller  poles  fastened 
to  the  upright  posts,  with  interstices  of  a  foot  in  width,  form 
the  sides  of  the  building.  Twigs  are  sometimes  wattled  with 
the  poles  to  fill  up  the  chinks,  or  mats  are  hung  up  as  screens. 
The  doorways  are  under  the  eaves  at  the  gable  ends,  over 
which  mats  are  hung,  though  good  and  substantial  doors  of 
deal  may  now  be  occasionally  seen.  A  few  mats,  a  number 
of  bark  dishes  and  baskets,  two  or  three  fishing  nets,  an  old 
sea  chest  in  which  the  household  goods  are  deposited  for  safe 
keeping,  an  iron  pot  that  does  all  the  cooking,  and  an  old- 
fashioned  rusty  musket,  or  double-barreled  gun,  are  about  the 
usual  assortment  of  furniture.  Outside  the  house,  there  may 
be  a  few  fruit  trees  growing,  and  sometimes  a  small  garden 
spot  can  be  discovered,  though  it  is  more  common  to  see  noth- 
ing but  the  former. 

Mats,  called  kakahus,  made  of  flax  and  braided  by  hand 
are  worn  by  both  sexes.  Those  of  the  men  are  often  very 
fine,  and  are  sometimes  interwoven  of  various  colors,  or  beau 
tifully  embroidered.  The  women  of  the  lower  classes  weai 
coarse  corn  leaf  mats,  particularly  when  at  work.  The 
kakahu  is  worn  tied  round  the  waist,  or  thrown  over  the 
shoulders.  Short  cloaks,  or  patutus,  about  three  feet  long, 
made  of  mat,  coarse  cloth,  or  dogskin  dressed  with  the  hair 
on,  are  worn  by  the  chiefs.  Loose  slips  of  calico  drawn  about 
the  neck,  resembling  the  ancient  tiputa  of  the  Tahitian  female, 
are  frequently  displayed  by  the  women.  Latterly  European 
fashions  have  been  introduced.  Sailors'  jackets  and  trowsers 
— and  often  the  former  without  the  latter — may  sometimes 
be  seen  adorning  the  person  of  a  swarthy  New  Zealander. 
Blankets,  too,  have  been  introduced,  and  they  are  now  worn 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  kakahu. 

Pork,  fish,  and  potatoes,  are  the  chief  articles  of  food  among 
the   natives ;    and   when   other   vegetables  fail  them,   they 


1840.]  BOTANY.  305 

have  recourse  to  the  roots  of  the  fern.  They  are  quite  partial 
to  rice,  and  as  fond  as  bears,  of  sugar,  molasses,  and  other  sweet 
things.  The  Polynesian  mode  of  cooking  was  formerly  in 
vogue,  but  it  has  now  given  place  to  the  iron  pot,  in  which 
everything  is  boiled.  Where  the  influence  of  the  mission- 
aries has  not  proved  sufficient  to  restrain  their  appetites,  they 
are  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  spirituous  drinks,  and  scenes 
of  revelry  and  debauchery,  in  which  both  sexes  participate, 
are  often  witnessed  in  the  native  pas.  They  also  make  for 
themselves  a  very  pleasant  beverage,  resembling  spruce  beer, 
and  having  slight  intoxicating  properties,  which  they  call 
wai-maori.  They  are  quite  fond  of  tobacco,  and  often  use  it 
to  excess. 

The  custom  of  taboo  has  yet  the  force  of  law.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  enforced  with  great  strictness,  and  carefully 
observed ;  and  it  is  found  exceedingly  useful  in  protecting  their 
kumara-patches  and  vegetable  gardens. 

Funeral  ceremonies  are  noisy  enough  ;  a  few  rounds  of 
musketry  being  always  regarded  as  a  sine  qua,  non.  When 
a  chief  dies,  unusual  attention  is  paid  to  the  rites  of  sepul- 
ture. A  small  canoe  is  cut  through  the  middle,  and  the  two 
sections  being  joined  together,  the  body  is  placed  in  the  cavity. 
These  receptacles  of  the  departed  chiefs  are  painted  some 
bright  color,  and  ornamented  with  feathers.  Instead  of  being 
deposited  in  the  ground,  however,  they  are  placed  beneath 
sheds,  round  about  which  are  fence  inclosures. 

(7.)  Owing  to  the  prevalence  of  the  dark  green  foliage  of 
the  evergreens,  New  Zealand  wears  the  appearance  of  per- 
petual vegetation.  Yet  the  islands  are  not  within  the  tropics, 
neither  do  they  possess  the  fruits  or  vegetables  indigenous  to 
countries  so  situated.  Barren  wastes  alternate  with  their 
dense  forests ;  and  nowhere  is  there  exhibited  the  exuberance 
of  growth  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  that  may  be  witnessed 
in  warmer  latitudes.  Scandent  and  parasitic  plants,  which 
always  add  so  much  to  the  beauty  of  tropical  landscapes,  are 
rarely  met  with ;  though  now  and  then  a  tree  may  be  seen 
completely  garlanded   over  with   vines.     The  timber  trees 


306  INDIGENOUS    PRODUCTS.  [1840. 

nevertheless  are  really  magnificent ;  they  are  mostly  of  the 
pine  species,  and  are  regarded  as  among  the  most  valuable  in 
the  world  for  ship  building.  The  Kauri  pine  attains  an  enor- 
mous size :  in  1841,  one  was  cut  and  shipped  which  meas- 
ured twenty-five  feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  was 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long ;  and  quite  lately  there  was 
another  standing  on  the  eastern  coast  of  New  Ulster,  seventy- 
five  feet  in  circumference,  and  estimated  to  be  considerably 
more  than  two  hundred  feet  high.  The  Kaikotia  pine  does 
not  grow  as  large  as  the  Kauri,  but  it  is  highly  valued  for 
spars. 

The  plains  and  low  lands  of  New  Zealand,  in  their  natural 
state,  are  overrun  with  masses  of  tall  impenetrable  fern 
(pteris  esculenta,)  and  with  thick  bushy  shrubs,  while  the 
swamps  and  marshes  produce  rushes  and  the  native  flax 
(phormium  tenax).  From  the  latter  is  procured  what  has 
already  become,  and  what  will  henceforth  be,  one  of  the  most 
important  staples  of  New  Zealand.  The  flax  is  obtained  from 
the  leaves,  and  not  the  stem,  of  the  plant.  It  is  remarkable 
for  the  length,  strength,  and  flexibility  of  its  fibres  ;  and  when 
the  necessary  improvements  shall  have  been  introduced  in  its 
preparation,  it  must  yield  a  handsome  profit  to  the  grower. 
The  preparation  is  now  left  to  the  native  women,  who  cut  it, 
and  after  dividing  it  into  strips  an  inch  wide,  separate  the  ex- 
ternal epidermis,  while  still  in  a  green  state,  from  the  inner 
fibres,  by  means  of  a  muscle-shell  or  a  piece  of  glass.  Great 
care  is  required  to  keep  the  inner  fibres  straight,  in  order  to 
preserve  their  beauty  ;  and  when  the  separation  is  completed, 
they  are  hackled  and  divided,  washed,  and  then  bleached  in 
the  sun. 

Among  the  other  indigenous  products  of  New  Zealand,  are 
the  kumara,  or  sweet  potato  ;  a  species  of  arum  esculentum, 
known  as  coccos  or  eddoes  ;  several  varieties  of  gourds  ;  and 
the  tetragonia  expansa.  The  last  is  the  well-known  New 
Zealand  spinach,  which  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  and 
America.  It  is  a  succulent  trailing  plant,  having  no  preten- 
sions to  beauty,  but  possessing  this  advantage  over  the  com- 


1840.]  AGRICULTURE.  307 

mon  spinach — that,  if  well  watered,  it  will  produce  leaves  of 
the  greatest  juiciness  during  the  entire  summer.  It  is  said 
that  a  bed  of  twenty  plants  will  afford  a  supply  sufficient  for 
a  large  family. 

The  natives  are  not  ignorant  of  the  art  of  cultivating  the 
soil.  When  Cook  first  visited  the  islands,  he  found  that  they 
turned  up  the  earth  in  their  kumara  patches  with  sharp-pointed 
sticks  and  other  rude  implements.  Of  late  years  spades  and 
plows  have  been  introduced.  A  great  incentive  to  industry 
is  furnished  by  the  almost  indestructible  native  fern.  It  springs 
up  everywhere  where  the  forests  have  been  cut  down,  or  in 
the  open  ground  where  its  cultivation  is  neglected.  When  it 
has  once  established  itself,  it  is  with  difficulty  extirpated  ;  and 
it  can  never  be  got  rid  of  except  by  plucking  it  up  by  the 
roots,  and  burning  it.  Even  then,  wherever  there  is  careless- 
ness in  tillage,  it  again  makes  its  appearance,  as  if  it  were  a 
judgment  or  a  punishment  for  indolence  and  neglect. 

Before  he  sailed  from  the  islands,  at  the  time  of  making 
his  discovery,  Captain  Cook  planted,  and  left  with  intelligent 
natives,  the  seeds  of  wheat,  peas,  cabbages,  onions,  potatoes 
and  turnips.  All  these  soon  run  out,  with  the  exception  of 
the  turnips  and  potatoes ;  the  latter  of  which  is  the  chief  de- 
pendence of  the  New  Zealander  during  the  winter  season. 
In  those  soils  where  black  loam,  vegetable  mould,  or  decom- 
posed basalt,  predominates,  most  of  the  cerealia  flourish, 
though  Indian  corn  is  the  principal  grain  that  is  cultivated. 
Sometimes  wheat  is  sowed  where  the  fern  has  been  dug  up 
and  burned,  yet  it  rarely  yields  over  fourteen  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  after  it  is  reaped  the  ground  is  seeded  down  to  grass. 
Of  native  grasses  there  are  scarcely  any,  but  the  foreign 
grasses  thrive  well.  The  New  Zealanders  themselves  do  not, 
in  general,  raise  over  two  crops  from  the  same  ground,  but 
after  tilling  a  piece  for  two  seasons  they  prefer  breaking 
up  new  soil.  Apples,  peaehes,  grapes,  cape-gooseberries, 
and  many  kinds  of  melons  and  other  vegetables,  have  been 
introduced  and   cultivated  with   success.     The   apples  and 


308  ZOOLOGY.  [1810. 

peaches  are  very  fine,  bat  the  grapes  do  not  succeed  very  well 
except  on  volcanic  soils. 

There  being  such  an  excess  of  moisture  in  New  Zealand,  it 
is  quite  doubtful  whether  grain  growing,  unless  it  be  for  home 
consumption  merely,  will  ever  prove  very  profitable,  but  for 
pasturage  the  climate  is  decidedly  favorable,  and  the  rearing 
of  stock  will  undoubtedly  make  handsome  returns. 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  when  these  islands  were  first  dis- 
covered, they  possessed  no  indigenous  mammalia  whatever  ; 
the  only  quadrupeds,  in  fact,  being  a  few  species  of  lizards 
that  were  objects  of  terror  and  veneration  to  the  natives. 
The  hog,  the  dog,  and  the  rat,  were  early  introduced.  The 
first  was  allowed  to  run  wild,  and  multiplied  so  rapidly  that 
the  islands  were  soon  well  stocked.  The  hogs  are  very  fond 
of  the  roots  of  the  fern,  which  is  so  exceedingly  abundant. 
"When  required  for  food,  they  are  caught  by  the  dogs.  The 
flesh  of  the  rat  was  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  by  the  natives, 
and  it  is  now  the  principal  species  of  game.  Cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats,  were  imported  by  the  missionaries,  and  large 
additions  have  been  made  to  the  stock  of  the  first  two, 
since  the  formation  of  settlements  by  the  whites  ;  excellent 
browsing  is  afforded  by  the  immense  thickets  of  shrubs,  where 
grass  cannot  be  procured,  and  both  appear  to  thrive  unusually 
well. 

Fish  abound  on  the  coast.  Whales  are  taken  in  great 
plenty  ;  but  it  is  said  their  numbers  are  diminishing,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  indiscriminate  massacre  which  has  been  go- 
ing on  for  so  many  years.  Smaller  fish  are  taken  by  the 
natives  with  hooks  and  nets ;  they  also  catch  great  quantities 
of  shell-fish  for  food,  and  there  is  a  clam,  called  pipi,  which 
they  esteem  highly  delicious. 

Of  the  bird  kind,  there  are  parrots  and  parroquets,  and 
wild  ducks  and  pigeons,  of  large  size  and  fine  flavor,  in  the 
forests  ;  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  sea  fowl  on  the  coasts. 
Poultry  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  reared  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  The  principal  singing  birds  are  the 
native  nightingale  and  the  tui.     The  latter  is  also  called 


1840.]  COMMERCE.  309 

the  "parson-bird,"  probably  for  the  reason  that  its  loud, 
screaming,  and  not  very  pleasant  notes,  resemble  the  declam- 
atory articulations  of  the  Wesleyan  missionary. 

(8.)  The  chief  articles  of  export  from  the  islands,  are  flax, 
spars,  pine  timber,  potatoes,  and  kauri  gum.  The  last  is 
obtained  from  the  pine  tree  of  that  name,  and  is  shipped  to 
New  South  Wales  and  Europe,  where  it  is  made  into  excel- 
lent varnish.  In  return  for  their  commodities,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  New  Zealand  import,  or  purchase  from  the  trading  ves- 
sels in  exchange  for  their  products,  domestic  goods,  blankets, 
guns,  powder,  lead,  agricultural  implements,  rice,  sugar  and 
molasses.  At  one  time  the  whale  fishery  was  the  most  profit- 
able employment  connected  with  commerce,  and  both  French 
and  American  vessels  participated  largely  in  it ;  but  since  the 
establishment  of  custom  houses,  and  a  regular  government, 
they  do  not  visit  the  islands  as  much  as  formerly,  and  from 
the  causes  before  mentioned,  the  fishery  is  said  to  be  less 
valuable,  though  numbers  of  persons  are  still  engaged  in  it. 

Though  exhibiting  so  little  skill  or  taste  in  the  construction 
of  their  mean,  low,  and  dirty  houses,  the  native  New  Zea- 
landers  in  reality  possess  great  mechanical  ingenuity.  This 
is  displayed  in  their  preparation  of  the  flax,  in  their  beautifully 
woven  mats,  in  their  canoes,  which  are  carved  and  orna- 
mented with  great  care,  and  particularly  in  the  aptitude  with 
which  they  imitate  the  whites  in  the  use  of  weapons,  tools, 
or  implements.  For  common  purposes,  they  now  use  whale- 
boats  instead  of  canoes  ;  and  have  substituted  the  square  sail 
for  the  triangular  one.  They  have  no  outriggers  on  their 
craft,  and  though  liable  to  accidents,  they  show  themselves 
to  be  expert  seamen  in  their  management  of  them.  Their 
war  canoes  are  from  forty  to  seventy  feet  in  length,  with 
prows  extending  up  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and 
adorned  with  waving  tufts  of  bright-tinted  feathers,  and  richly 
carved  ornamental  work. 

Mills  have  been  set  up  in  New  Ulster,  and  there  is  a  great 
abundance  of  water  power  for  propelling  machinery  on  all 
the  larger  islands.     In  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Terry,  when  they 


310  MANUFACTURES.  [1840. 

become  cultivated  and  stocked  with  cattle,  and,  as  an  imme- 
diate consequence,  when  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  labor, 
grow  cheaper,  they  must  be  the  seat  of  extensive  manufac- 
tures. "In  addition,"  says  he,  "to  moderate  wages  and  cheap 
food,  there  would  be  the  further  important  auxiliaries  of  coal, 
timber,  and  clay,  with  endless  excellent  localities,  having 
water  communication.  New  Zealand  would  then  bring  into 
profitable  production  her  timber,  for  ship-building ;  flax,  for 
canvas,  ropes,  &c;  copper,  for  sheathing  her  ships,  and  all 
other  purposes ;  sulphur,  for  brimstone,  &c;  alum  and  dye 
woods,  in  manufacturing  the  wool  of  Australia  or  the  cotton 
of  India ;  tan,  for  leather  from  the  hides  of  her  own  cattle,  or 
from  Australia  and  South  America ;  tobacco,  which  could  be 
manufactured  ;  breweries  and  distilleries,  for  barley  and  hops 
of  native  growth,  &c.  But  it  is  far  more  rational  to  con- 
ceive that,  instead  of  attempting  fruitlessly  to  compete 
in  the  exports  of  raw  produce,  the  colonists,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, will  endeavor  to  render  themselves  independent  of  any 
other  colony  for  the  supply  of  food ;  and  when  food  and  labor 
are  cheap,  they  will  direct  their  capital  and  energies  to  bring 
into  play  the  other  national  products,  in  manufactures  for 
their  own  wants,  as  well  as  to  supply  Australia,  India,  China, 
and  Spanish  America,  all  of  which  are  not  far  distant."  * 

(9.)  Having  completed  their  repairs,  all  the  vessels  belong- 
ing to  the  American  Exploring  Squadron,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Peacock,  left  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  the  6th  day 
of  April.  Prosperous  breezes  wafted  them  rapidly  on  their 
way  ;  no  incidents  of  special  importance  occurred  on  the  pas- 
sage ;  and  on  the  22d  instant  they  made  the  islands  of  Eooa 
and  Tongataboo.  On  the  24th  they  came  to  anchor  off 
Nukualofa,  the  principal  town  on  the  latter  island,  and  on 
the  1st  day  of  May  they  were  joined  by  the  Peacock. 

*  Terry's  New  Zealand,  etc.,  pp.  2G0,  261. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

(1.)  The  Tonga  Islands. — (2.)  Physical  Geography.  Climate.  Productions. — 
(3.)  Population.  Character  and  Appearance.  Dress.  Customs.  Super- 
stitions.— (4.)  Houses.  Canoes. — (5.)  Missionaries.  Wars  between  the 
Christians  and  the  "  Devil's  Party." — (6.)  Sailing  of  the  Squadron,  and 
Arrival  at  the  Feejee  Group. 

(1.)  Among  the  many  other  important  discoveries  of  the 
eminent  Dutch  navigator,  Abel  Janssen  Tasman,  were  the 
Tonga  Islands,  or  Hapa'i  Group.  He  touched  at  Tongataboo 
in  1642,  and  afterwards  visited  the  Feejee  Group ;  but  in 
conformity  with  the  general  policy  of  his  government,  the 
world  was  not  enlightened  in  regard  to  his  discoveries,  till 
other  navigators  had  found  their  way  to  the  islands.  Captain 
Cook  first  saw  the  Tonga  Islands  in  1773  ;  he  spent  consider- 
able time  in  the  group,  and  in  allusion  to  the  kind  and  hos- 
pitable treatment  he  received  from  the  native  inhabitants, 
named  them  the  Friendly  Isles,  by  which  term  they  are  now 
most  commonly  designated.* 

There  are  six  principal  islands  : — Eooa,  Tongataboo, 
Hapa'i,  Vavao,  Keppel's  Island,  and  Boscawen, — besides 
which,  there  are  a  number  of  small  and  uninhabited  isles, 
visited  by  the  natives  only  for  fishing  and  obtaining  biche  de 
mer.  Eooa,  and  Tongataboo,  or  Tonga,  are  the  southernmost 
of  the  group,  and  the  others  lie  further  to  the  north  ;  all  be- 
ing included  between  the  parallels  of  17°  and  22°  south  lati- 
tude, and  172°  and  176°  west  longitude.  A  strait  eight 
miles  in  width,  separates  Eooa  from  Tonga,  and  the  other 


*  The  term  "  Friendly  Islands"  is  often  applied,  as  a  general  appellation,  to 
the  extensive  group  embracing  the  Navigators',  Feejee,  and  Tonga  Islands. 


312  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  [1840 

islands  are  divided  in  the  same  manner  by  deep  sea  channels, 
of  greater  or  less  width,  in  which  vessels  are  often  protected, 
in  a  degree,  from  the  violence  of  the  waves  in  the  open  ocean, 
by  the  immense  coral  reefs  that  encircle  the  group.  These 
are  low  and  sunken  in  many  places,  and  unless  provided  with 
a  correct  chart,  or  the  weather  be  particularly  favorable,  it 
is  dangerous  for  a  strange  vessel  to  attempt  to  pass  through 
the  openings.  Passages  of  this  kind,  however,  are  quite 
numerous,  and  once  inside  the  reefs,  still  water  may  fre- 
quently be  found,  even  when  the  storm  rages  the  most  fear- 
fully without. 

(2.)  Quite  a  variety  of  scenery  is  presented  in  this  group 
of  islands.  Eooa  is  rocky  and  barren,  and  rises  to  the  height 
of  six  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tofooa,  one 
of  the  smaller  islands,  attains  a  still  greater  elevation,  and  is 
the  highest  of  the  group.  Hapa'i,  Vavab",  and  Tonga,  are 
much  lower,  and  far  more  fertile.  Some  of  them  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  exhibit  all  the  distinctive  features  peculiar  to  that 
formation  ;  but  the  only  active  volcano  is  on  the  island  of 
Tofooa.  Others  are  the  work  of  the  coral.  Tonga  is  low 
and  almost  level ;  there  being  only  here  and  there  a  small 
hillock  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  and  near  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  island  a  conical  hill  about  sixty  feet  in 
height.  It  is  not  far  from  one  hundred  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  has  a  shallow  lagoon,  like  those  in  the  atolls  of  the 
Paumotu  Group,  extending  some  ten  miles  into  the  interior, 
though,  of  course,  surrounded  by  a  much  greater  mass  of 
elevated  ground. 

Hurricanes  and  earthquakes  are  frequent,  and  the  former 
are  very  destructive.  Rain  falls  in  great  quantities,  and 
heavy  dews  descend  at  night.  The  mean  temperature  in  the 
summer  months  is  about  80°,  and  the  thermometer  often  rises 
to  98°  in  the  shade.  In  consequence  of  the  moist  atmosphere, 
the  oppressive  heat,  and  the  sudden  transitions  from  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  the  climate  is  not  at  all  healthy, 
though  the  natives,  where  their  habits  are  regular,  frequently 
live  to  an  advanced  age.     Fevers,  with  the  exception  of  in- 


1840.]  PRODUCTIONS.  313 

termittents,  are  not  unusually  prevalent,  but  cold?,  coughs, 
influenza,  and  consumption,  are  common.  Glandular  swell- 
ings and  eruptive  complaints,  superinduced  in  many  cases  by 
intemperance  and  excess,  are  more  or  less  prevalent. 

Tonga  is,  perhaps,  justly  entitled  to  be  called  the  garden 
of  the  group,  since  it  is  the  most  fruitful,  and  exhibits  a 
greater  exuberance  of  foliage.  Yet  all  the  coralline  islands 
are  covered  with  a  deep  and  rich  vegetable  mould,  containing 
very  little  sand,  which  is  highly  productive.  They  are  beauti- 
fully feathered  with  bread-fruit  and  cocoas,  and  adorned  with 
the  graceful  and  majestic  trees  of  the  tropics,  whose  boughs 
are  often  interlaced  with  luxuriant  vines  and  creepers,  and 
with  shrubs  and  plants,  in  all  stages  of  growth,  desirable 
either  for  their  utility  or  for  ornament.  Like  the  happy  val- 
ley of  Cashmere,  each  is  a  paradise  rejoicing  in  "  perpetual 
spring,"  and  when  fanned  by  the  soft  breezes  of  summer,  waft- 
ing the  many  odors  of  its  perfumed  flowers  among  its  sister 
isles. 

All  the  principal  tropical  productions  flourish  on  these 
islands  in  great  abundance.  Yams,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas, 
taro,  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut,  sugar-cane,  shaddocks  [citrus  de- 
cumana),  limes,  papaw,  or  Carica  papaya,  and  the  ti,  are  the 
most  important  indigenous  products.  The  sweet  orange  of 
Tahiti  has  been  introduced  by  the  missionaries,  and  appears 
to  be  well  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  but  the  fruit  is 
almost  always  destroyed  by  an  insect  that  deposits  its  larvae 
on  it,  which  cause  it  to  fall  before  it  becomes  fully  ripe. 
Pine-apples,  water-melons,  cabbages,  turnips,  mustard,  pep- 
pers, maize,  a  species  of  chirimoya,  and  the  North  American 
papaw,  or  custard-apple,  have  likewise  been  introduced,  and 
richly  reward  the  time  and  labor  expended  in  their  cultiva- 
tion. The  heathen  cultivate  the  tobacco-plant  with  great 
success.  The  ahia,  (eugenia  malacconds,)  producing  a 
pulpy  fruit  something  like  the  apple  in  shape,  is  occasionally 
found.  There  are  several  species  of  palms,  and  different  va- 
rieties of  cane  and  reeds.  The  casuarina  affords  the  material 
for  the  native  clubs,  the  shafts  of  their  spears,  their  drums. 


314  THE    TONGESE.  [1840, 

and  some  of  their  culinary  utensils.  There  is  a  species  of 
nutmeg-tree,  yielding  an  abundance  of  fruit,  which  is  up- 
wards of  forty  feet  in  height.  Specimens  of  the  ficus-tree 
may  be  seen  here,  having  trunks,  as  it  were,  composed  of  in- 
tertwining roots,  one  hundred  feet  in  circumference.  Orna- 
mental shrubs  and  climbing-plants,  euphorbias,  tournefortias, 
the  apapa,  and  the  faifai,  are  quite  common.  The  pandanus 
is  also  plentiful,  and  great  care  is  taken  by  the  natives  to 
prune  it,  and  otherwise  encourage  its  growth,  as  all  their  mats 
are  made  from  its  leaves. 

Most  of  the  fruits  and  other  edible  productions  of  the  Tonga 
Islands  are  cultivated  by  the  natives,  though  they  have  latterly 
become  less  industrious  than  they  once  were,  probably  for  the 
reason  that  they  have  contracted  many  of  the  bad  habits  of 
the  whites,  and  not  a  few  of  the  vices  of  their  neighbors  of 
the  Feejee  Group.  Still,  their  yam-grounds,  and  their  sweet- 
potato  patches,  receive  a  great  degree  of  attention,  and  are 
often  objects  of  pride,  especially  since  the  substitution  of  more 
modern  agricultural  implements  for  the  rude  ones  formerly 
in  use. 

(3.)  Like  most  of  the  island-groups  of  Polynesia,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  Tonga  Islands  has  been  much  overrated.  It  has  been 
estimated  as  high  as  fifty  thousand,  but  the  missionaries  loca- 
ted there,  who  have  had  ample  means  of  observation,  do  not 
think  it  can  possibly  exceed  twenty  thousand.  Almost  one 
half  of  this  number  are  inhabitants  of  Tongataboo,  or  Tonga  ; 
Hapa'i  and  Vavab*  each  contain  near  four  thousand  inhab- 
itants ;  and  the  remainder  are  scattered  about  among  the 
different  islands. 

The  Tongese  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  people  of 
the  Sarno'an  Group,  and  the  evidences  of  a  generic  affinity  be- 
tween the  two  are  very  striking.  The  former  are  more  fair, 
perhaps  ;  but  their  countenances  have  the  same  general  cast 
and  expression.  The  men  have  large  and  powerful  frames, 
with  an  abundance  of  bone  and  muscle.  Many  of  the  women 
and  children  are  almost  white,  and  the  Tonga  maidens  are 
remarkable  for  the  possession  of  great  personal  beauty.     Their 


1840.]  CHARACTER.  315 

hair  is  straight  and  fine,  and  'naturally  of  a  dark  color,  but  the 
frequent  use  of  lime-water  and  lime  turns  it  red  ;  yet  they  have 
black,  expressive  eyes ;  their  oval  faces  are  just  tinged  with 
olive ;  their  busts  and  shoulders  are  well  developed,  their  forms 
rounded  and  full,  but  not  gross,  and  their  limbs  neatly  turned. 
These  are  certainly  attractive  charms,  and  when  united  to  an 
intelligent  expression  of  countenance,  gayety,  but  not  frivolity 
of  heart,  frank  and  easy  manners,  and  a  true  inbred  modesty, 
almost  always  proof  against  temptation,  surely  entitle  their 
possessors  to  an  enviable  distinction. 

Cleanliness  is  characteristic  of  both  sexes.  The  habit  of 
frequent  bathing  is  early  acquired,  and  not  often  neglected. 
They  are  a  cheerful  and  light-hearted  people  ;  fond  of  music, 
dancing,  and  other  amusements  ;  docile  ;  ingenious  ;  apt  at 
imitation;  and  great  chafferers  in  making  bargains.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  they  are  virtuous  and  industrious  ;  but,  though 
not  yielding  so  much  as  might  be  expected  to  the  enervating 
influences  of  the  climate,  they  cannot  resist  the  temptations 
placed  before  them  by  the  whites  or  the  neighboring  islanders. 
They  are  usually  quite  happy  in  their  domestic  relations ; 
the  attachment  between  husband  and  wife  is  strong,  and  the 
"  olive  branches"  that  twine  themselves  about  their  hearts, 
serve  to  knit  them  more  firmly  together,  and  render  the  tie 
that  binds  them  to  each  other  nearer,  dearer,  and  more  indis- 
soluble. 

A  warlike  disposition  does  not  appear  to  have  been  origi- 
nally characteristic  of  the  Tongese,  but  they  have  imbibed  it 
in  their  intercourse  with  the  natives  of  the  Feejee  Group,  and 
with  it,  have  learned  to  be  crafty,  cunning,  and  treacherous. 
They  are  courageous,  however,  and  are  well  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  fire  arms.  Muskets  are  quite  plenty  among  them. 
Their  other  principal  offensive  weapons  are  clubs  and  spears, 
commonly  made  of  the  casuarina,  or  iron-wood. 

Many  of  the  natives  possess  European  articles  of  dress,  of 
which  they  are  exceedingly  proud,  yet  it  is  not  usual  for 
either  sex  to  wear  anything  but  the  siapo,  a  sort  of  short 
petticoat  made  of  tapa,  and  descending  from  the  waist  half- 


316  dress.  [1840. 

way  down  the  thighs.  The  pareu  is  also  worn,  and  the  mis- 
sionaries have  prevailed  upon  the  christian  women  to  arrange 
its  folds  so  as  to  cover  their  bodies  as  high  as  the  neck,  but 
they  do  not  like  to  conform  to  this  new  custom,  and  very 
often  disregard  it.  Neither  sex  wear  a  covering  on  their  heads, 
upon  ordinary  occasions,  and  the  children  are  rarely  incum- 
bered with  any  clothing  whatsoever;  but  the  latter  have  their 
hair  cropped  close,  except  a  small  lock  over  each  ear,  to  keep 
out  the  vermin. 

When  the  native  warriors  array  themselves  in  their  mar- 
tial costumes  and  war-paint,  and  put  on  their  richly  orna- 
mented mats,  and  their  gay  belts  and  turbans,  they  present 
a  most  striking  and  picturesque  appearance.  A  sight  like 
this  was  witnessed  during  the  visit  of  the  American  Explor- 
ing Squadron,  which  is  thus  described  by  Captain  Wilkes  in 
his  narrative  : — "  I  was  now  surrounded  by  large  numbers 
of  warriors,  all  grotesquely  dressed  and  ready  for  the  fight, 
with  clubs,  spears,  and  muskets.  In  addition  to  the  usual 
tapa  around  their  waist,  they  had  yellow  and  straw-colored 
ribands,  made  of  the  pandanus-leaves,  tied  around  their  arms 
above  the  elbows,  on  their  legs  above  and  below  the  knees, 
and  on  their  bodies  :  some  had  them  tied  and  gathered  up  in 
knots ;  others  wore  them  as  scarfs — some  on  the  right  shoulder, 
some  on  the  left,  and  others  on  both  shoulders.  Some  of 
these  sashes  were  beautifully  white,  about  three  inches  wide, 
and  quite  pliable.  Many  of  them  had  fanciful  head-dresses, 
some  with  natural  and  others  with  artificial  flowers  over  their 
turbans  (called  sala) ;  and  nearly  all  had  their  faces  painted 
in  the  most  grotesque  manner,  with  red,  yellow,  white,  and 
black  stripes,  crossing  the  face  in  all  directions.  Some  were 
seen  with  a  jet  black  face  and  vermilion  nose ;  others  with 
half  the  face  painted  white.  When  a  body  of  some  eight 
hundred  of  these  dark-looking,  well-formed  warriors,  all  eager 
for  the  fight,  and  going  to  and  fro  to  join  their  several  com- 
panies, is  seen,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  describe  the  effect."* 

Beating  tapa,  and  weaving  mats  of  pandanus  leaves,  and 

*  Narrative  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  Vol.  III.  p.  8. 


1840.J  occupations.  317 

baskets  of  the  same  material,  or  of  reeds  or  cane,  with  the 
performance  of  the  necessary  household  duties,  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  women.  All  the  out-door  work  is  performed 
by  the  men.  They  cultivate  the  yam  and  sweet  potato 
patches,  gather  the  bread-fruit  and  cocoa-nut,  build  houses 
and  canoes,  weave  sails  of  pandanus  leaves,  and  hunt  and 
fish.  They  also  display  a  great  deal  of  ingenuity  in  making 
boxes  of  their  beautiful  woods,  baskets  of  cane  and  reeds,  and 
miniature  canoes.  Rat-catching  was  once  a  favorite  amuse- 
ment, and  when  the  animals  were  captured  they  were  often 
eaten  uncooked.  But  the  natives  now  subsist  mainly  on  the 
produce  raised  by  themselves,  and  the  fruit  of  the  cocoa  and 
bread-fruit.  Hogs  and  poultry  are  reared  among  them,  and 
are  gradually  becoming  quite  plenty.  Fish  are  abundant, 
especially  the  edible  kinds,  though  sharks  and  whales  are  like- 
wise numerous.  Birds  of  different  species,  abound  along  the 
coasts,  and  in  the  groves  and  forests  of  the  interior, — the 
most  conspicuous  among  them  being  the  tropic  bird,  wood- 
pecker, turtle  dove,  and  parroquet  (trichoclossus), — but 
though  often  hunted,  and  killed  or  snared,  they  are  not  much 
eaten.  The  mode  of  preparing  their  food  is  similar  to  that 
practiced  in  the  Samoan  Group. 

Among  the  heathen,  smoking  tobacco  is  a  common 
practice.  The  leaf  of  the  plant  is  cut,  and  rolled  up  inside 
of  one  of  the  finest  and  most  delicate  pandanus  leaves,  like  a 
cigar.  They  are  also  fond  of  foreign  liquors,  and  often  drink 
to  excess.  These  indulgences  are  forbidden  to  the  christians  ; 
they  do  not  smoke,  yet  they  occasionally  give  way  to  their 
love  for  ardent  spirits.  The  fondness  for  ava-  is  universal, 
it  being  drank  alike  by  christian  and  heathen.  It  is  pre- 
pared from  the  piper  mythisticum,  and  the  natives  frequently 
meet  together  in  small  parties,  to  drown  their  sorrows,  or 
heighten  their  joys,  in  the  flowing  ava-bowl. 

Singing  is  a  favorite  diversion  with  all  classes.  The  voices 
of  the  females  are  very  musical,  and  all  take  great  delight  in 
displaying  their  powers.  Both  men  and  women  have  their 
tunes,  appropriate  to  the  employment  or  occupation  in  which 


318  customs.  [1840. 

they  may  be  engaged.  These  are  hummed  or  sung,  when  at 
labor,  whether  it  be  beating  tapa,  weaving  mats,  plucking 
the  bread-fruit,  or  sculling  the  canoe.  The  heathen  have 
their  war  and  love  dances,  as  among  the  Samoans ;  but  they 
are  by  no  means  so  beastly  or  sensual  in  their  habits  and 
appetites,  as  the  same  class  in  the  Navigator  Group.  Their 
principal  musical  instrument  is  the  drum,  or  lokt,  which  is 
made  of  the  half  section  of  a  circular  hollow  log  of  hard  sono- 
rous wood. 

No  general  head  is  recognized  in  the  Tonga  Group,  though 
the  king  of  Tongataboo  and  the  southern  islands  is  usually 
regarded  as  superior  in  rank  to  the  other  kings  and  chiefs. 
There  are  different  tribes,  often  on  the  same  island,  and  not- 
withstanding there  may  be  a  nominal  king  to  whom  all  pay 
allegiance,  their  loyalty  is  not  of  the  most  devoted  kind, 
being  neither  very  loud  in  its  profession,  nor  enthusiastic  in 
its  manifestation.  All  business  affecting  the  general  wel- 
fare, is  transacted  in  the  fonos,  or  councils. 

Tonga  was  originally  the  sacred  island  of  the  group,  and 
here  were  the  principal  morais,  and  temples,  to  which  the  na- 
tives of  the  other  islands  were  obliged  to  bring  their  votive  offer- 
ings; These  temples  are  now  maintained  by  the  heathen  in 
some  of  the  districts,  yet  ancient  superstitions  and  observances 
are  fast  losing  their  hold  upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  The 
religion  of  the  heathen  is  not  exactly  feticism, — though  they 
have  images  of  some  of  their  gods, — for  most  of  their  divinities 
are  purely  imaginary,  and  many,  perhaps,  are  the  distin- 
guished heroes  and  kings  of  Tonga  in  former  days,  apotheo- 
sized by  their  countrymen  for  their  good  deeds  and  qualities, 
whether  real  or  fanciful.  They  worship  a  great  number  of  dei- 
ties, who  are  fabled  to  possess  unlimited  power  over  them,  for 
good  or  for  evil.  These  are  called  the  gods  of  Bulotu,  or  Atua 
faka  Bulotu,  and  are  supposed  to  be  immortal.  Their  oldest 
god  was  Maui,  who  drew  the  islands  out  of  the  sea  with  a 
hook  and  line  ;  he  and  his  two  sons  live  under  the  earth,  and 
when  he  turns  over  he  produces  earthquakes  ;  the  worship  of 
this  divinity  is  now  entirely  neglected.     Tangaloa  is  their 


1840.]  SUPERSTITIONS.  319 

second  god,  who  resides  in  the  skies  and  is  esteemed  equal  to 
Maui  in  dignity.  Hikuleo  is  the  god  of  spirits,  and  is  the 
third  in  order  ;  he  dwells  in  a  cave  on  the  island  of  Tonga. 
The  gods  who  produce  evil  are  called  Atua  Banuu. 

Bulotu,  however,  is  the  principal  deity.  He  inhabits  a 
cave  on  a  fabulous  island  bearing  his  name,  which  lies  at  a 
considerable  distance  north-west  of  Tonga.  In  consequence 
of  his  long  tail  he  is  unable  to  leave  the  cave,  but  holds  his 
feasts  there,  and  solaces  himself  with  a  great  number  of 
wives.  He  possesses  absolute  power  over  all,  but  is  destitute 
of  either  love  or  goodness.  The  most  valuable  presents  are 
deposited  in  his  spirit-temple,  and  human  sacrifices  are  offered 
to  him,  when  an  act  of  sacrilege  has  been  committed,  within 
the  morais,  or  sacred  inclosures.  Other  gods  inferior  to  Bu- 
lotu reside  on  the  same  island.  When  the  natives  of  the 
lower  class  die,  they  remain  in  the  world,  and  feed  on  ants 
and  lizards,  but  the  spirits  of  the  kings,  nobles,  and  mata- 
booles,  or  inferior  chiefs,  are  wafted  to  Bulotu — "  the  island 
of  the  blessed."  This  island  is  supposed  to  be  larger  than 
the  whole  Tonga  Group,  and  to  be  well  stocked  with  useful 
and  ornamental  plants,  in  a  high  state  of  perfection.  It  pro- 
duces the  richest  fruits,  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers,  al- 
ways imbathed  in  fragrance.  Brilliant-tinted  birds  fill  the 
air  with  their  melody.  There  is  also  an  abundance  of  hogs 
and  other  animals.  Neither  fruit  nor  flower  ever  fades ;  but 
if  either  be  plucked,  another  starts  forth,  its  exact  image,  in 
the  very  place  it  occupied.  So,  too,  the  birds  and  animals 
are  immortal.  If  one  of  the  former  be  destroyed,  ere  its 
song  be  hushed,  its  rich  melody  is  continued,  without  the  loss 
of  a  single  note,  by  another  warbler  that  instant  called  into 
existence.  If  a  hog  be  killed  for  the  use  of  the  gods,  its 
place  is  supplied  in  a  moment,  and  the  occupants  of  porker- 
dom,  like  the  birds,  and  fruits,  and  flowers,  never  diminish  in 
numbers. 

It  is  supposed  by  the  natives,  that  the  air  of  Bulotu  can- 
not be  inhaled  by  mortal  bodies  without  producing  speedy 
death,  unless  the  gods  so  will ;   that  it  is  dangerous  to  go 


320  houses.  [1S40 

thither  in  their  canoes,  that  they  cannot  reach  the  island,  or 
if  safely  arriving  there,  return  again,  except  through  the  same 
special  interposition  of  their  deities.  Yet  it  is  said,  that  a 
party  of  Tongese  once  visited  this  enchanted  spot,  and  were 
delighted  with  its  beauties,  but  on  attempting  to  pluck  the 
luscious  bread-fruit,  it  eluded  their  grasp ;  and  they  walked 
through  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  and  the  houses,  which  were 
built  after  the  Tongese  fashion,  without  encountering  any 
resistance.  Trees  and  dwellings,  fruits  and  flowers,  birds 
and  animals — all  appeared  but  as  shadows  to  those  who  were 
strangers  in  this  spirit-land. 

(4.)  When  speaking  of  the  dwellings  in  the  Samoiin  Group, 
it  was  remarked  that  they  had  borrowed  their  style  of  house- 
building from  the  Tongese.  The  houses  of  the  latter  are  of 
an  elliptical  form,  twenty  feet  long  by  fifteen  wide,  and  about 
fifteen  feet  high  under  the  ridge-pole.  The  posts  are  either 
of  cocoa-nut  or  bread-fruit,  and  are  set  in  the  same  manner  as 
has  been  previously  described.*  Indeed,  the  houses  are  con- 
structed similarly  to  those  of  the  Samoans,  in  every  respect, 
except  that  the  sides  are  made  of  wicker-work,  composed  of 
the  slender  stalks  of  the  sugar-cane  firmly  wattled  together. 
Glazed  windows  are  nowhere  seen  except  in  the  residences  of 
the  missionaries.  Mats  are  hung  at  the  doors,  and  sometimes 
they  are  made  use  of  within,  to  divide  a  house  into  several 
compartments.  The  floor  is  also  covered  with  mats  ;  coarse 
ones  being  commonly  used,  and  the  finer  ones  kept  in  reserve 
for  extraordinary  occasions.  In  the  centre  of  the  house,  a 
small  space  of  ground  is  left  uncovered,  where  the  cooking  is 
performed.  Clubs,  spears,  muskets,  fishing  gear,  an  occasional 
shelf,  the  ava-bowl,  a  supply  of  mats,  drinking-vessels  made 
of  cocoa-nut  shells,  earthen  jars  dried  in  the  sun,  a  few  cook- 
ing utensils,  and  a  chest  or  box  to  contain  all  the  principle  val- 
uables, are  the  ordinary  embellishments  and  articles  of  fur- 
niture found  in  a  Tongese  habitation.  Besides  their  more 
common  mats,  they  have  stiffer  ones  about  two  feet  wide, 
made  to  stand  on  the  edges,  supported  by  scrolls  at  either  end ; 
*  Ante,  p.  209  et  seq. 


IMPLEMENTS    AND    UTENSILS    OF   POLYNESIANS. 


322  FORTIFICATIONS.  [1840 

these  are  curled  about  the  young  children  when  laid  down 
upon  the  larger  mats,  or  are  used  as  screens  by  the  females, 
to  hide  their  persons  when  seated  on  the  floor  and  engaged  at 
their  occupations.  Fans  are  made  of  the  same  material  with 
the  mats,  and  both  are  often  highly  ornamented.  In  addition 
to  their  other  uses,  the  mats  of  the  Tongese  are  their  couches 
at  night ;  their  pillow  is  made  of  a  strip  of  bamboo,  supported 
on  legs  from  eight  to  ten  inches  high  ;  if  the  weather  be  very 
cool  they  cover  themselves  with  their  lighter  mats,  and  in  the 
summer  they  are  obliged  to  swathe  fine  tapa  cloth  about  their 
limbs  and  bodies  to  protect  them  from  the  troublesome  mus- 
quitoes. 

Nukualofa,  near  the  northern  end  of  Tongataboo,  and  Le- 
fooka  on  the  island  of  Hapai",  are  the  largest  towns  in  the 
group.  The  former  contains  between  six  and  seven  hundred 
houses,  and  is  situated  on  the  hill  before  mentioned,  being  half 
imbosked  amid  a  grove  of  bread-fruits  and  cocoas,  which  pro- 
tect it  from  the  fierce  radiance  of  the  tropical  sun,  and  sheltej 
it  from  the  destructive  hurricanes.  This  is  a  fortified  town, 
being  defended  by  a  high  wall  or  embankment  made  of  earth 
and  logs,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch.  On  the  top  of  the 
parapet  there  is  a  wicker-work  fence,  from  five  to  eight  feet 
high,  and  in  some  places  of  several  thicknesses.  Narrow 
openings  through  the  glacis,  terminating  in  gateways  admit 
ting  the  passage  of  two  persons  abreast,  and  which  can  be 
easily  filled  up  with  earth,  constitute  the  entrances  to  the 
fort.  Hollow  logs  are  placed  obliquely  in  the  embankment 
which  are  used  as  loop-holes  for  the  musketry.  Most  of  the 
other  towns  in  the  group  are  similarly  fortified. 

The  Tongese  are  fond  of  the  water.  They  are  daring  and 
expert  sailors  and  swimmers.  Some  of  their  canoes  are  one 
hundred  feet  long.  They  are  made  like  those  in  use  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Feejee  Group.  The  double  canoes 
will  often  hold  from  forty  to  fifty  persons  ;  they  consist  of 
two  single  ones  united  together  by  a  deck  or  platform  project- 
ing two  or  three  feet  beyond  the  canoes  on  each  side.  One 
of  these  canoes  is  smaller  than  the  other  ;  it  serves  the  pur- 


1840.]  MISSIONARIES.  323 

pose  of  an  outrigger,  and  is  always  kept  toward  the  weather 
side.  There  is  a  single  mast,  usually  about  thirty  feet  high, 
which  is  supported  by  guys,  and  has  a  long  yard  bearing  a 
huge  triangular  sail  or  mat.  On  the  platform  there  is  a  house 
or  cabin,  for  shelter  in  stormy  weather,  the  roof  of  which  is 
flanked  by  railings,  and  constitutes  a  sort  of  hurricane-deck. 
There  are  small  hatchways  at  each  end  of  the  double  and 
single  canoes.  The  Tongese  have  a  mode  of  sculling  that 
seems  to  be  peculiar  to  them  and  the  Feejees.  The  oar  is 
confined  in  a  hole  in  the  platform,  behind  which  stands  the 
sculler,  who  holds  his  implement  perpendicularly,  and  bears 
his  whole  weight  upon  it.  Canoes  are  propelled  in  this  man- 
ner with  great  rapidity,  often  making  three  miles  in  an  hour. 
Both  kinds  of  the  Tongese  craft  leak  badly,  and  though  man- 
aged with  great  skill,  they  require  constant  bailing. 

(5.)  In  1821,  the  Wesleyan  missionaries  first  began  their 
labors  in  the  Tonga  Islands,  but  permanent  establishments 
were  not  made  till  1829.  In  the  last  mentioned  year  stations 
were  formed  on  Tonga  and  Hapa'i,  and  in  1830,  on  the  island 
of  Vavao.  The  smaller  islands  are  under  the  care  of  native 
teachers.  About  one  quarter  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  group 
are  professed  christians,  one  half  of  whom  are  church-mem- 
bers. Not  only  have  the  islanders  benefited  by  the  religious 
instruction  of  their  spiritual  teachers  ;  numbers  of  them  have 
been  taught  to  read  and  write,  and  to  understand  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  geography  and  arithmetic,  while  many  of  the  females 
have  learned  to  knit  and  sew. 

As  a  people,  the  Tongese  are  much  attached  to  their  an- 
cient customs,  and  fierce  and  bloody  contests  have  taken 
place  between  the  heathen  and  christian  parties.  The  mis- 
sionaries have  not  always  been  the  friends  of  peace.  When 
the  American  Squadron  touched  at  the  islands,  the  hostile 
factions  were  marshalling  their  forces  for  battle.  Captain 
Wilkes  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  procure  a  pacific  ar- 
rangement of  all  difficulties,  but  his  efforts  were  not  very  well 
seconded  by  the  missionaries,  who  seemed  perfectly  willing 
that  there  should  be  a  trial  of  strength  between  the  rival 


324  SAILING    OF    THE    SQUADRON.  [1840 

bands.  The  "  Devil's  party"  were  completely  successful  in 
repelling  an  assault  made  upon  their  fortifications,  and  after 
various  conflicts  and  reverses,  peace  was  restored.  Though 
the  intercourse  of  the  Tongese  with  the  natives  of  the  Feejee 
Group  has  had  the  tendency  to  impair  or  detract  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  missionaries,  they  have  much  to  encourage 
them ;  and,  if  pursuing  their  labors  with  patience  and  per- 
severance, they  may  at  no  distant  day  accomplish  the  com- 
plete civilization  and  moral  regeneration  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Tonga  Islands. 

(6.)  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  May,  the  Explor- 
ing Squadron  got  under  way,  and  sailed  out  of  the  harbor  of 
Nukualofa.  The  Porpoise  was  detached,  under  the  command 
of  Lieutenant  Ringgold,  with  orders  to  proceed  to  the  eastern 
group  of  the  Feejee  Islands,  and  to  examine  and  survey  the 
long  line  of  islets  and  reefs  extending  to  the  north,  between 
the  178th  and  179th  meridians.  The  other  vessels  pursued  a 
north-westerly  course,  towards  the  main  Feejee  Group ;  and 
on  the  8th  of  May  the  Vincennes  and  Peacock  came  safely 
to  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Levuka,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
island  of  Ovolau.  The  Flying  Fish  did  not  arrive  till  the  11th 
instant,  having  been  delayed  in  her  passage  by  running  on  a 
coral  reef  off  the  island  of  Nairai,  and  carrying  away  a  por- 
tion of  her  false  keel.  Preparations  were  forthwith  made, 
upon  the  arrival  of  the  vessels,  to  proceed  with  the  examina- 
tion of  the  islands,  and  to  make  an  accurate  survey  of  all  the 
reefs,  coasts,  and  harbors. 


y 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


(1.)  The  Feejee  Group.  Geographical  Description. — (2.)  Principal  Harbors 
and  Towns. — (3.)  Geology.  Climate.  Productions. — (4.)  Zoology. — (5.) 
Personal  Appearance  of  the  Natives.  Traits  and  Characteristics. — (6.)  Pop- 
ulation. Government. — (7.)  Dress.  Customs  and  Superstitions. — (8.)  Mode 
of  Building  Houses  and  Constructing  Canoes. — (9.)  Commercial  Importance. 
— (10.)  Movements  of  the  Exploring  Squadron.  Murder  of  Lieutenant  Un- 
derwood and  Midshipman  Henry,  and  Chastisement  of  the  Natives. 

(1.)  But  very  few  years  have  elapsed  since  any  consider- 
able amount  of  information  has  been  obtained  in  regard  to 
the  Feejee  Group.  Tales  of  the  covetousness,  treachery,  and 
barbarity  of  the  inhabitants,  were  often  heard.  Occasionally 
it  was  said  that  an  European  or  American  vessel  had  been 
cast  ashore,  or  had  touched  at  the  islands  to  obtain  water  or 
supplies,  and  that  it  had  been  attacked  and  plundered,  and 
its  crew  murdered  and  their  bodies  devoured  at  the  horrid 
cannibal  repasts  of  the  natives.  In  consequence  of  these 
stories,  which  were  rife  in  the  Pacific,  whalers  and  traders 
were  careful  how  they  ventured  thither ;  and  those  who  were 
compelled  to  do  so  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  provisions 
with  which  the  islands  were  bountifully  stocked,  wary  and 
cautious  as  they  might  be,  rarely  escaped  without  the  loss  of 
one  or  more  articles  of  property,  or  some  member  of  the  crew. 
Hidden  coral  reefs,  too,  were  known  to  abound  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  group,  upon  which  vessels  were  frequently  wrecked, 
and  the  dangers  of  the  navigation,  therefore,  also  deterred 
strangers  from  venturing  too  far  where  the  sailing  was  so 
intricate.* 

*  Between  the  years  1828  and  1840,  eight  vessels,  five  of  which  were  Ameri- 
can, were  lost  in  the  Feejee  Group,  and  twelve  vessels  ran  ashore,  within  the 
same  period,  and  were  more  or  less  damaged. 


326  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION.  [1840 

Tasraan  first  discovered  this  group  of  islands,  in  1643 
When  Cook  was  at  Tongataboo,  in  1773,  he  heard  of  their 
existence,  but  did  not  visit  them.  Captain  Bligh  fell  in  with 
the  eastern  group,  in  1791,  when  on  his  westward  passage  in 
the  launch  of  the  Bounty,  after  being  set  adrift  and  aban- 
doned by  his  crew.  Captain  Wilson  touched  at  the  islands, 
in  the  ship  Duff,  to  land  some  missionaries,  in  1797  ;  but  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  the  navigation,  and  the  hostile 
and  threatening  appearance  of  the  natives,  he  felt  constrained 
to  abandon  his  original  intention.  D'Urville  visited  the  group 
on  his  first  expedition,  and  gave  them  the  name  of  the  Viti 
Islands :  he  was  there  again  in  1839,  and  to  him  and  Captain 
Wilkes  is  the  merit  due,  of  having  made  the  first  critical  and 
scientific  examinations  and  accurate  surveys  of  the  islands. 

There  are  three  divisions  of  the  Feejee  Islands,  which  are 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle,  whose  base  is  in  about 
19°  30'  southern  latitude.  On  the  east,  or  weather  side,  is 
the  Eastern  Group ;  on  the  north  are  Vanua-levui,  and 
Vuna ;  and  on  the  west  are  Viti-levui,  Ovolau,  and  Kan- 
tavu.  Other  islands  of  less  importance  serve  to  complete  what 
is  almost  a  continuous  chain.  That  portion  of  the  ocean 
included  within  the  periphery  is  called  the  Sea  of  Goro.  The 
group  is  quite  numerous ;  it  is  said  to  comprise  over  one 
hundred  and  fifty  different  islands,  sixty-five  of  which  are  in- 
habited— all  lying  between  15°  30'  and  19°  30'  southern  lat- 
itude, and  longitude  177°  E.  and  178°  W.  The  uninhabited 
isles  are  often  resorted  to  by  the  natives  to  obtain  cocoa-nuts, 
and  to  take  fish  and  biche  de  mer.  Most  of  the  islands  belong- 
ing to  the  eastern  division,  consist  of  chaplets  or  rings  of  coral 
inclosing  high  and  broken  volcanic  peaks  or  bluffs.  The  north- 
ern and  western  islands  are  bold  and  mountainous  in  the  inte- 
rior ;  but  the  peaks  and  ridges  are  flanked  by  broad  slopes,  and 
separated  by  wide  valleys,  covered  all  over  with  the  profuse 
vegetation  of  a  tropical  clime. 

All  the  islands  are  surrounded  in  great  part  by  coralline 
reefs,  whose  beautiful  tints,  and  varied  and  delicate  structure, 
always  excite  admiration  ;  some  of  these  are  covered  with  a 


1840.]  IMPORTANT    ISLANDS.  327 

sufficient  depth  of  soil  to  support  vegetation  ;  and  others  are 
half  concealed  by  the  combing  waves  that  spend  their  fury  in 
impotent  efforts  to  destroy  the  labors  of  the  tiny  zoophyte. 
In  addition  to  the  reefs,  there  are  sunken  patches  of  branch- 
ing coral,  whose  brilliant  colors  of  pink  and  purple,  brown, 
green,  white,  and  yellow,  seem  like  reflections  in  the  clear 
water,  or  like  the  enchanted  palaces  of  tritons  and  mermaids. 

The  most  important  islands  of  the  eastern  group  are  Fu- 
langa,  Kambara,  Lakemba,  and  Vanua-valavo.  Fulanga  is 
of  a  semi-circular  form,  and  is  rough  and  uneven ;  its  bluffs 
rising  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Kambara  is  three  and  a  half  miles  long  and 
two  miles  wide  :  it  is  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the 
ocean,  and  clothed  to  its  topmost  heights  with  the  richest 
verdure.  Lakemba  is  the  largest  island  in  the  eastern  group  ; 
its  highest  peak  has  an  altitude  of  over  seven  hundred  feet ; 
it  is  five  miles  long  and  three  in  width,  and  is  well  wooded 
and  highly  productive.  Quite  a  number  of  converted  Ton- 
gese  reside  on  Lakemba,  and  their  example,  with  the  efforts 
of  the  missionaries,  has  produced  a  most  happy  change  in  the 
conduct  and  appearance  of  the  native  population.  Vanuii- 
valavo  is  in  the  shape  of  a  half-moon ;  it  is  quite  narrow,  but 
fourteen  miles  in  length,  and  beautifully  fringed  with  bread- 
fruits, cocoas,  and  palms. 

Vuna  is  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  from  north  to  south, 
and  five  miles  wide.  It  is  separated  from  Vanua-levui,  or 
the  "large  land,"  by  the  straits  of  Somu-Somu,  which  are  five 
miles  in  width  at  the  narrowest  point.  It  has  a  central 
ridge,  over  two  thousand  feet  high,  almost  always  shrouded 
in  dense  masses  of  clouds,  which  slopes  down  gradually  on 
every  side  to  the  beach ;  but  it  is  generally  far  more  level 
than  the  other  islands,  and  in  consequence  contains  a  much 
greater  proportion  of  land  adapted  to  cultivation. — The  gen- 
eral direction  of  Vanua-levui  is  from  east  to  west :  it  is 
shaped  like  an  elongated  heart,  with  its  opening,  Natava 
Bay,  facing  the  north-east ;  and  including  all  its  indentations, 
it  cannot  be  far  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  circum- 


988  vtti-lewi.  [1840. 

fr««ifftt-  The  coast  country  partakes  of  the  same  general 
features  characteristic  of  the  other  members  of  the  group ; 
mud  flats  alternating  with  swelling  bluffs  along  the  shore, 
bat  soon  giving  place  to  a  succession  of  richly  carpeted  hills 
and  plains  stretching  away  to  the  lofty  Yolcanic  peaks  of  the 
interior,  that  tower  above  the  surrounding  landscape  to  the 
height  of  four  or  fire  thousand  feet. 

Viti-levui,  about  thirty-five  miles  south  of  the  western  end 
of  YannaJevui,  is  somewhat  smaller  and  less  hilly  than  the 
"large  land."  It  is  nearly  of  a  circular  form ;  on  the  west 
the  country  is  comparatively  low,  being  broken  only  by  a 
few  hills,  scarcely  ever  rising  above  the  height  of  five  or 
seven  hundred  feet ;  but  far  in  the  interior  there  are  lofty 
ranges  of  blue  mountains,  running  from  north  to  south,  that 
attain  an  elevation  of  four  or  five  thousand  feet. — Ovolau 
lies  off  the  east  end,  and  in  sight  of  Viti-levni :  it  is  eight 
miles  long,  from  north  to  sooth,  and  seven  miles  in  width ; 
it  is  intersected  by  a  range  of  mountainous  peaks,  the  tallest 
of  winch  is  twenty-three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
from  its  base,  gentry  undulating  slopes,  divided  by  lovely  val- 
leys, all  adorned  with  magnificent  groves  of  bread-fruits  and 
cocoas,  stretch  down  to  the  sea-shore. — Malolo,  lying  off  the 
western  point  of  Viti-levui,  and  inside  the  same  great  reef,  is 
a  small  circular  island,  remarkable  only  for  the  unfortunate 
celebrity  it  has  acquired  as  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  two 
of  the  most  promising  officers  of  the  American  Exploring 
Expedition. 

The  island  of  JUbenga,  five  miles  south  of  Viti-levui,  is 
five  miles  long  and  three  wide ;  the  land  rises  boldly  on  all 
sides  towards  the  interior,  terminating  in  two  prominent  basal- 
tic peaks  thirteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  leveL  Twenty- 
six  miles  further  to  the  south  is  Kantavn,  one  of  the  most 
important  and  densely  populated  islands  in  the  whole  group ; 
it  is  likewise  high  and  mountainous,  and  about  twenty-five 
miles  in  length. — Twenty  miles  a  little  to  the  south  of  east 
from  Ovolau,  is  Nairai,  an  oblong  island  seven  miles  in  length 
and  from  two  to  three  miles  wide,  and  particularly  famous 


1810.]  RIVERS   AND   STREAMS.  329 

for  its  manufacture  of  mats  and  baskets ;  it  has  two  elevated 
peaks,  and  its  scenery  partakes  of  the  same  general  character 
of  that  of  the  other  islands. — Goto,  about  fifteen  miles  north 
of  Nairai,  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  of  the  Feejee  islands ; 
it  is  nine  and  a  half  miles  long  and  four  miles  wide ;  the  sur- 
face is  high  but  not  much  broken,  and  from  the  tops  of  its 
loftiest  hills  to  the  foaming  breakers,  it  presents  a  most  abun- 
dant vegetation. — From  fifteen  to  eighteen  miles  west  of  Viti- 
levui,  is  a  long  chain  of  rocky  islands,  all  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, extending  in  a  north-easterly  direction  from  thirty  to 
forty  miles,  which  are  classed  together  as  the  Assua  Group. 
There  are  fewer  reefs  to  obstruct  the  navigation  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  these  islands,  and  on  the  west  there  are  no  sea-reefs  of 
importance.  Many  of  them  are  inhabited,  but  all  are  rugged 
and  broken,  their  mountain  peaks  sometimes  rising  to  the 
height  of  sixteen  hundred  feet. 

Almost  all  the  islands  are  well  watered.  The  numerous 
valleys  that  intersect  the  slopes  and  plains  along  the  coasts, 
often  form  the  channels  of  streams  that  carry  off  the  surplus 
waters  of  the  interior,  of  which  there  is  usually  an  abundance, 
and  dispense  their  grateful  moisture,  lavishly  and  without 
stint,  as  they  wend  their  way  to  the  ocean.  In  the  two 
larger  islands  there  are  several  considerable  rivers,  which  may 
be  navigated  for  some  distance  in  boats.  Mbua  Bay,  at  the 
western  end  of  Vanua-levui,  receives  the  waters  of  two  or 
three  large  rivers,  one  of  which  is  two  hundred  feet  wide  at 
its  mouth.  Wai-levu  river  is  the  most  considerable  stream 
on  the  island  of  Yiti-levui:  it  rises  in  the  mountains,  and, 
after  tumbling  over  a  precipice  seven  hundred  feet  high,  di- 
vides into  two  branches,  about  forty-three  miles  from  its  mouth, 
the  larger  of  which  enters  the  sea  at  Bewa  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  island,  and  the  other  at  Indimbi,  ten  miles  fur- 
ther to  the  west.  For  eight  'miles  above  Bewa,  the  river  is 
lined  with  rich  alluvial  flats,  intersected  with  a  great  number 
of  creeks,  either  tributaries  to  the  main  stream,  or  diverging 
from  it* 

•  The  boats  at  ttw  AMnoaSqiadbaiaacadadtfae  Wuiern  fir  a  tfistuce 


330  HARBORS    AND    TOWNS.  [1840 

(2.)  Most  of  the  harbors  in  the  Feejee  Group  are,  like 
those  of  the  Society  Islands,  mere  indentations  in  the  coast 
outline,  protected  by  the  encircling  reefs  of  coral.  Probably 
the  best  of  them  all  is  that  of  Levuka,  on  the  east  side  of 
Ovolau,  which  is  safe  and  easy  of  access  for  vessels  of  the 
largest  class.  The  town  contains  about  forty  houses,  and, 
after  the  prevailing  fashion,  is  located  in  the  midst  of  a  grove 
of  bread-fruits  and  cocoas,  whose  feathery  canopies  afford  a 
most  delightful  shade  ;  its  site  is  a  beautiful  valley,  through 
which  courses  a  fine  stream  of  fresh  water,  opening  to  the 
ocean,  flanked  on  either  side  by  verdant  hills,  and  rising  by 
a  gradual  ascent  to  the  lofty  peaks  of  basalt  that  bound  the 
view  to  the  west.  Most  of  the  foreign  residents  make  this 
their  place  of  abode,  and  the  society  is  altogether  better  than 
that  of  any  other  place  in  the  group. 

In  the  two  principal  islands  there  are  a  number  of  large 
bays.  Vanua-levui  has  Natava  Bay  on  the  east,  Savu  Bay 
on  the  south,  and  Mbua,  or  Sandal- wood  Bay,  at  the  west 
end.  Natava  Bay  is  much  the  largest  of  the  three,  and 
has  a  number  of  towns  on  its  borders ;  it  is  bounded  on  the 
south-east  by  Rambe  Island,  and  by  Point  Unda  on  the  north- 
west ;  it  is  spacious,  and  sufficiently  easy  of  access,  but  con- 
tains a  great  many  hidden  reefs  and  sunken  patches  of 
coral.  Savu-Savu  Bay  is  ten  miles  long,  from  east  to  west, 
and  five  miles  in  breadth ;  it  is  a  fine  sheet  of  deep  water, 
surrounded  by  high  broken  ridges  which  unite  in  the  rear  in 
a  saddle-shaped  peak.  There  are  several  towns  in  the  vicin- 
ity, and  the  district  contains  over  two  thousand  inhabitants. 
It  was  at  one  time  more  thickly  settled  than  it  now  is,  and 
the  remains  of  some  of  the  strongest  fortifications  in  the 
Feejee  Group  may  be  seen  here.  Its  principal  attractions, 
however,  are  the  hot  springs,  impregnated  with  salt  and  sul- 
phur, which  ooze  from  the  ground  like  those  of  New  Zealand, 
and  cover  an  area  of  nearly  half  a  mile  square.     They  lie 

of  forty-eight  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  natives  informed  the  party  that  it  -was 
the  outlet  of  a  large  lake  in  the  interior,  but  the  formation  of  the  country  does 
not  favor  the  idea  in  the  least 


1840.]  AMBAU    AND    REWA.  331 

directly  upon  the  bay,  and  close  beside  them  is  a  stream  of 
fresh  water.  The  natives  resort  to  these  springs  to  boil  their 
food :  particularly  when  they  make  great  feasts ;  one  of  them 
is  held  sacred,  and  none  but  human  victims,  whose  bleaching 
bones  are  piled  around  in  heaps,  are  cooked  in  it ;  they  also 
attribute  healing  qualities  to  the  waters,  which  are  doubtless 
real  to  some  extent. — Mbua  Bay  was  formerly  much  frequented 
by  foreigners  to  procure  the  odorous  sandal-wood  that  was 
once  found  in  abundance  on  its  borders,  but  the  supply  is  now 
nearly  exhausted,  and  it  has  consequently  diminished  in  im- 
portance. The  bay  is  of  a  circular  shape,  and  affords  ample 
anchorage  at  some  distance  from  the  shore ;  yet  it  is  filled 
with  reefs,  and  the  country  around  is  quite  low,  though  soon 
rising  into  picturesque  ridges  and  peaks  as  you  advance  into 
the  interior.  The  principal  town  in  the  adjacent  district  is 
Vaturna,  which  lies  about  a  mile  up  the  large  river  before 
mentioned  :  it  contains  from  fifty  to  sixty  houses,  and  several 
mbures,  or  temples  ;  the  inhabitants  are  more  kind  and  hos- 
pitable than  in  many  of  the  other  towns,  which  is  probably  to 
be  attributed  to  their  frequent  intercourse  with  the  whites. 
Muthuata,  on  the  north  side  of  Vanua-levui  is  a  pretty  town, 
having  a  fine  harbor,  which  is  protected  from  the  north  winds 
by  an  island  of  the  same  name. 

The  most  important  harbors  in  Viti-levui,  are  the  Bay  of 
Ambau,  and  the  roadstead  of  Rewa,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wai- 
levu  river.  The  former  is  at  the  south-eastern  point  of  the 
island  :  the  anchorage  is  much  obstructed  by  the  coral  reefs 
and  shoals,  and  vessels  of  large  draught  cannot  approach  near 
the  shore.  Within  the  bay  are  two  small  islands,  Ambau 
and  Viwa,  connected  with  the  main  land,  which  is  about  a 
mile  distant,  by  coral  flats  or  reefs.  Both  are  well  covered 
with  houses,  but  the  town  of  Ambau  is  considerably  the 
most  populous,  and  in  a  political  point  of  view  possesses 
greater  importance  than  any  other  town  in  the  Feejee  Islands. 
The  harbor  of  Rewa  is  just  round  the  point  of  the  island 
from  Ambau,  but  hardly  ten  miles  distant  from  it  over  land. 
It  is  formed  by  two  small  islands  and  their  reefs,  fronting  the 


332  SAWAU    AND    OTHER    STATIONS.  [1840. 

debouchure  of  the  Wai-levu  river.  There  are  three  passages 
through  the  encircling  reefs,  inside  of  which  the  water  is 
deep  and  the  anchorage  secure.  The  town  of  Rewa  is  three 
miles  up  the  river,  on  an  island,  in  the  midst  of  an  alluvial 
tract  formed  of  the  detritus  washed  down  from  the  highlands 
in  the  interior.  This  low  ground,  though  subject  to  frequent 
inundations,  is  exceedingly  productive.  Dense  thickets  of 
mangrove-bushes,  in  some  places  almost  impervious,  alternate 
with  copses  of  palms,  and  groves  of  bread-fruits  and  cocoas  ; 
the  valleys  and  ravines  that  divide  the  hilly  range  along  the 
coast  are  concealed  beneath  the  thrifty  vegetation  ;  and  above 
them  are  spread  out  the  wide  patches  of  deep  green  verdure 
extending  to  the  red  cliffs  of  the  distant  mountains.  In  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  there  are  cultivated  gardens  and  fields, 
not,  indeed,  affording  very  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  tho 
skill  and  industry  of  the  husbandman,  but,  as  if  in  sheer  spite, 
fairly  teeming  with  their  almost  spontaneous  products.  The 
open  spaces  are  crowded  with  bananas  ;  the  shade  trees  afford 
both  protection  and  nourishment,  and 

"  rich  fruits  o'erhang 
The  sloping  walks,  and  odorous  shrubs  entwine 
Their  undulating  branches." 

Rewa  contains  a  larger  population  than  Ambau ;  the  num- 
ber of  its  inhabitants  is  about  five  thousand,  while  that  of 
the  latter  is  only  three  thousand.  The  natives  there  also 
seem  better  disposed,  and  a  residence  among  them  is  more 
desirable,  inasmuch  as  there  are  a  number  of  abandoned 
whites  at  Ambau  who  have  corrupted  the  original  inhabitants, 
and  made  them,  if  possible,  still  worse  than  they  formerly 
were. 

Mbenga  is  nearly  divided  in  two  by  the  harbor  of  Sawau, 
which  faces  to  the  north,  and  is  about  two  miles  deep.  The 
entrance  is  narrow,  being  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  head- 
land to  headland,  but  it  immediately  opens  out  to  a  mile  in 
width,  and  contains  from  four  to  ten  fathoms  of  water. 
There  are  several  small  villages  lying  around  the  harbor,  each 


1840.]  GEOLOGY.  333 

imbosomed  in  its  pleasant  grove  of  tropical  fruit-trees.  Kan- 
tavu  has  merely  a  harbor  formed  by  the  coral  reefs.  Near 
the  centre  of  the  island  is  Malatta  Bay,  whose  shores  are 
bordered  with  an  abundant  growth  of  pine  timber,  which  is 
highly  esteemed  for  masts  and  spars ;  and  most  of  the  large 
canoes  in  the  group  are  built  here.  There  are  upwards  of 
forty  towns  on  the  island,  containing,  altogether,  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants.  There  are  many  snug  bays 
in  the  Assua  Group,  upon  which,  on  the  steep  and  precipitous 
bluffs,  are  situated  most  of  their  little  villages  or  towns. 

The  largest  town  and  best  harbor  on  Nairai  is  Toaloa,  at 
the  north  end  of  the  island.  Vuna  has  a  very  good  harbor  at 
Somu-Somu,  on  its  western  shore.  The  town  of  the  same 
name,  which  is  a  missionary  station,  is  divided  into  two 
parts ;  one  lying  on  the  beach,  and  the  other  on  the  bluffs 
above,  nearly  screened  from  view  by  the  thick  foliage  of  the 
numerous  bread-fruits,  cocoas,  palms,  and  bananas.  There 
are  no  very  important  harbors  in  the  Eastern  Group.  On  the 
south  side  of  Lakemba  there  is  a  slight  indentation,  in  front 
of  which  is  a  coral  reef,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  depth  of 
water  for  a  vessel  of  over  one  or  two  hundred  tons  burden. 
Situate  on  the  harbor  is  a  small  town  containing  six  hundred 
inhabitants,  which  can  likewise  boast  of  a  church  and  a  mis- 
sion house.  The  former  is  eighty  feet  long  by  thirty-two  feet 
wide,  twenty-five  feet  high,  and  well  carpeted  with  mats. 

(3.)  Evidences  of  the  volcanic  origin  of  this  group  are  so 
abundant  and  so  general,  that  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  refer 
to  them  in  detail.  There  are  a  number  of  tall,  sharp-pointed, 
conical  hills,  of  basaltic  formation,  which  at  no  very  remote 
ao-e  were  the  craters  of  active  volcanoes,  although  no  running 
streams  of  lava  have  been  discovered,  and  the  only  indica- 
tions of  volcanic  heat  are  at  the  hot  springs  of  Savu-Savu- 
The  islets  of  the  eastern  group  are  mostly  composed  of  scoria- 
ceous  materials.  There  are  extensive  beds  of  ferruginous 
marl  on  the  island  of  Ovolau,  above  which  are  masses  of  black 
lava  and  pudding  stone,  and  lofty  blocks  of  basalt.  Volcanic 
conglomerate,  scoria,  agglutinated  basalt  or  tufa,  porphyritic 


334  CLIMATE.  [1840. 

pumice  stone,  and  sandstone,  are  found  throughout  the 
group. 

There  can  be  no  richer  soil  than  that  afforded  by  the  de- 
composition of  these  formations,  especially  when  mingled  with 
the  vegetable  mould  constantly  accumulating  in  such  vast 
quantities.  This  is  shown  in  the  rapid  and  thrifty  growth  of 
everything  adapted  to  the  climate.  The  dark  green  man- 
groves that  cover  the  marshy  and  alluvial  flats  along  the 
coasts,  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers ;  the  graceful  palms 
that  adorn  the  acclivities  of  the  hills,  and  the  slopes  and  val- 
leys ;  and  the  tall  and  gloomy  pines  that  cast  their  deep 
shadows  along  the  mountain  sides — all  denote  the  capacity 
of  the  islands  for  the  production,  with  ordinary  culture,  of  an 
almost  exhaustless  supply  of  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables. 
The  proportion  of  the  unproductive  land  to  that  suited  for 
tillage  is  very  small.  The  general  character  of  the  soil  is  a 
brownish  yellow,  or  red  loam  ;  in  some  few  places  a  kind  of 
indurated  blue  clay,  containing  nodules  of  grit,  is  found  ;  and, 
only  here  and  there,  are  occasional  barren  patches  of  gravel. 

In  respect  to  climate,  too,  these  islands  are  highly  favored. 
Of  warmth  and  moisture  there  is  no  deficiency,  except  that 
on  the  leeward  side  of  the  islands,  as  is  always  the  case  in  the 
larger  and  mountainous  groups  of  Polynesia,  showers  are 
much  less  frequent,  and  sometimes  long  continued  droughts 
occur,  during  which  the  vegetation  often  assumes  a  burnt 
appearance.  Still,  there  is  a  great  quantity  of  rain  falls. 
There  is  a  good  deal  of -launder  and  lightning;  severe  gales 
and  hurricanes  are  frequently  experienced  ;  and  earthquakes 
are  not  uncommon,  though  the  shocks  are  usually  quite 
slight. 

Over  the  verdant  hills  and  lovely  valleys  of  the  Feejee 
Group,  there  generally  rests  a  soft  and  pure  atmosphere,  and 
even  in  the  winter  months,  when  it  is  the  most  rainy,  the 
weather  is  remarkably  fine.  A  cloudless  sky  is  soon  dark- 
ened, it  is  true,  but  when  the  sun  shines  forth  again,  and 
nature  glistens  through  her  tears,  everything  seems  brighter 
and  fairer  than  it  is  wont  to  do,  and  the  laughing  hours  glide 


1840.]  diseases.  335 

smoothly  on,  filling  each  heart  with  new-born  gladness  and 

The  extremes  of  temperature  during  the  year  are  from  58° 
to  100°,  in  the  shade.  The  nights  are  cool,  frequently  even 
when  no  dew  falls.  In  the  summer  months  the  heat  con- 
tinues very  intense  for  many  days  in  succession,  but  it  is 
often  moderated  during  some  part  of  the  day  by  the  delicious 
sea  breezes. 

Colds,  coughs,  influenza,  and  acute  diseases  of  the  lungs, 
are  quite  prevalent.  Ulcerous  affections  and  rheumatism — 
the  latter  being  principally  confined  to  the  women — are  not 
uncommon.  Cases  of  syphilis  are  exceedingly  rare,  and 
fevers  are  unknown.  Elephantiasis  does  not  prevail  to  any 
great  extent.  There  is  a  singular  disease,  resembling  syph- 
ilis, called  by  the  natives  dthoke,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
peculiar  to  these  islands.  It  attacks  both  children  and 
adults,  and  commences  with  rheumatic  pains  and  swellings, 
followed  by  the  appearance  of  ulcerous  pustules  on  the  body. 
If  the  eruptions  do  not  appear,  or  dry  up  too  soon,  the  disease 
is  pretty  sure  to  terminate  fatally. 

All  the  ordinary  productions  of  tropical  climes  may  be 
found  in  the  Feejee  Group.  Among  the  larger  trees  are  the 
bread-fruit,  cocoa,  toa,  or  casuarina ;  several  varieties  of 
palms  ;  a  species  of  pine  called  dackui,  resembling  the  kauri 
of  New  Zealand ;  the  hibiscus  tiliacus,  pandanus,  tamanu, 
rata,  or  native  chestnut,  plantain,  banana,  and  Carica  pa- 
paya. There  are  nine  different  kinds  of  bread-fruit,  and  three 
of  cocoas,  but  all  resemble  one  another  in  their  general  prop- 
erties. The  value  of  the  annual  product  of  these  two  trees 
alone  must  be  enormous :  they  furnish  the  native  with 
bread  and  clothing,  and  from  them  also  he  obtains  a  great 
proportion  of  the  materials  for  his  habitation.  The  cocoa 
does  not  flourish  very  well  above  the  elevation  of  six  hundred 
feet ;  but  below  that  level  its  luxuriance  of  growth  is  unsur- 
passed. Besides  the  ordinary  preparations  of  the  bread-fruit, 
the  natives  scrape  off  the  rind,  and  pack  it  in  earthen  jars, 
or  bury  it  in  pits  lined  with  banana  leaves  and  covered  with 


FRUIT    AND   TIMBER    TREES.  [1840. 

thatch,  where  it  ferments  and  forms  an  incrassated  mass  like 
cheese,  which  they  call  mandrai ;  a  similar  preparation  is 
also  made  of  unripe  bananas :  both  are  cooked  with  cocoa-nut 
milk,  and  are  exceedingly  palatable  and  nutritious.  It  is 
said  that  mandrai  will  keep  for  a  number  of  years,  and  a 
supply  is  always  kept  on  hand  for  a  season  of  scarcity.* 

Bananas  and  plantains  are  very  plentiful,  but  not  highly 
prized,  though  they  are  more  or  less  cultivated,  and  grow 
with  great  rapidity ;  in  a  few  years  after  the  plants  are  set 
out,  they  form  delightful  umbrageous  groves  round  the  homes 
of  the  islanders.  Besides  the  common  plantain,  the  wild 
species,  or  fet,  is  also  cultivated.  Among  the  other  trees 
that  afford  sustenance  to  the  natives  are  the  shaddock,  tara- 
vou,  or  native  plum,  Malay  apple,  and  indiva.  The  bitter 
orange  is  indigenous,  and  both  the  lemon  and  sweet  orange 
have  been  brought  here  from  Tahiti.  On  the  uplands  the 
wild  nutmeg  is  found  in  considerable  abundance,  but  the 
kernel  does  not  possess  much  aromatic  flavor.  Plantations 
of  the  paper  mulberry  receive  a  great  share  of  attention,  as 
the  bark  of  the  young  trees  is  manufactured  into  tapa,  by 
scraping  it  with  a  conch  shell,  macerating,  and  beating  it  on 
a  log  with  a  grooved  mallet.  The  tapa  is  afterwards  bleached 
in  the  sun,  and  dyed  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  person  making 
it.  Mats  are  made  of  pandanus  leaves,  bands  and  sashes  of 
the  bark  of  the  hibiscus,  and  baskets  of  willow  and  rattan. 

Building  materials  are  principally  obtained  from  the  cocoa, 
bread-fruit,  tree-fern,  and  palm.  Bamboo  and  hibiscus  are 
also  used  for  the  sides  of  the  houses  :  of  the  former  light  rafts 
for  taking  fish,  torches,  and  drinking  vessels,  are  also  made. 
When  the  joints  of  the  bamboo  are  burned  as  torches,  they 
are  first  saturated  with  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  the  twisted  leaves 
of  the  cocoa  are  likewise  used  for  candles.  The  mangrove 
completely  covers  the  low  grounds,  if  pains  are  not  taken  to 

♦  The  taro,  and  other  fruits,  are  oRen  preserved  in  the  same  manner.  Tha 
term  mandrai  appears  to  be  a  general  one;  for  instance,  the  preserved  bread 
fruit,  which  is  like  the  mahi  of  Tahiti,  is  called  mandrai-uta,  the  banana  mandrai- 
vunai,  the  native  chestnut  mandrai-sivisiti,  and  the  taro  mandrai  y  taro. 


1840.]  VEGETABLE    PRODUCTIONS.  337 

extirpate  it,  or  keep  it  down,  and  where  there  is  room  for  a 
single  shoot  to  grow,  it  will  spring  up  and  flourish ;  the 
flexible  twigs  of  this  shrub  are  employed  in  wattling,  and 
the  tough  and  elastic  roots  are  made  into  bows.  The  toa,  or 
iron- wood,  is  manufactured  into  clubs,  spears,  bowls  and 
other  vessels,  and  articles  of  furniture ;  it  is  also  used  for 
arrows, — the  strips  of  wood  being  charred  and  inserted  in 
pieces  of  cane  Spears  are  also  made  of  the  cocoa-nut  wood  : 
they  are  ordinarily  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  length,  sometimes 
wound  with  sennit,  and  either  tipped  with  bone  or  charred  at 
the  point. 

Pine  timber  is  quite  plenty,  and  is  chiefly  used  in  building 
their  canoes ;  for  masts  and  spars  it  is  very  valuable.  The 
sandal- wood,  or  yase,  is  almost  exhausted. 

Edible  roots  of  different  kinds  are  in  great  abundance,  and 
most  of  them  are  cultivated.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  the  yam  and  the  taro  ;  the  kawai,  resembling  the  Malay 
batata ;  the  ivia,  arrow-root,  and  ti.  Other  wild  roots,  and 
wild  berries  growing  on  the  mountains,  are  eaten  when  there 
is  a  failure  in  the  supply  of  other  products.  Turmeric  is 
cultivated  for  cosmetic  purposes,  and  the  sugar  cane  is  found, 
both  in  a  wild  state,  and  in  the  gardens  and  plantations  of 
the  natives.  Two  varieties  of  the  gossypium  are  indigenous ; 
one  producing  a  nankeen-colored,  and  the  other  a  clear  white 
cotton  of  fine  and  even  texture.  The  cotton-tree,  [bombax) 
is  also  found  growing  to  the  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
Tobacco  is  grown  in  considerable  quantities,  and  smoking  is 
one  of  the  chief  enjoyments  of  the  Feejeean.  Melons,  cu- 
cumbers, pine  apples,  guavas,  capsicums,  cape-gooseberries, 
and  native  tomatoes,  are  abundant;  and  nearly  all  of  the 
most  valuable  foreign  vegetables  found  in  the  tropics,  or  in 
the  temperate  zone,  have  been  introduced  here  and  cultivated 
with  success. 

Flowering  plants  and  shrubs  are  quite  common.  The 
scarlet  flowers  of  the  callistemon,  and  the  bright  yellow  blos- 
soms of  the  cordia,  everywhere  peep  out  from    amid   tha 

dense  mangrove  thickets.     Acacias,  gorgeously  decked  with 

15 


338  AGRICULTURE.  [1840. 

the  rich  and  variegated  dyes  of  innumerable  creepers,  are 
scattered  over  the  landscape.  Here  and  there  may  be  seen 
the  rich  orange-colored  fruit  of  the  xylocarpus,  or  the  white 
tufts  bursting  from  the  capsules  of  the  cotton-tree.  The 
numerous  family  of  the  orchidese  are  lavish  in  the  display  of 
their  charms.  Beautiful  mosses  cling  to  the  tall  forest-trees, 
whose  dark  foliage  contrasts  so  well  with  the  gay  parterre 
smiling  in  beauty  and  loveliness  beneath  them.  Arborescent 
and  trailing  ferns  adorn  the  acclivities  of  the  mountains. 
Mingled  with  all  these  varied  forms  of  vegetation,  there  are 
aromatic  shrubs  dispensing  their  fragrance  on  every  hand ; 
and  while  the  beholder  feasts  his  eyes  on  the  beauties  before 
him,  he  inhales  an  odor  delightful  as  the  ambrosia  of 
Olympus. 

Agriculture  is  one  of  the  principal  employments  of  the 
poorer  class  of  natives ;  the  chiefs  and  higher  dignitaries 
being  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  labor,  by  the  exactions 
imposed  on  those  below  them  in  rank  and  position.  The 
earth  in  their  plantations,  and  their  yam  and  taro  patches, 
is  dug  up  for  the  most  part  with  sharp-pointed  sticks,  though 
spades  and  shovels,  usually  made  after  a  very  rude  fashion, 
have  been  introduced  to  some  extent.  Before  working  the 
soil,  in  new  ground,  they  set  fire  to  the  underbrush,  or  the 
dry  native  grass,  (scirpus.)  which  is  coarse  and  thickly  mat- 
ted, and  often  spreads  over  large  tracts  of  country.  The 
young  banana  or  mulberry  trees,  or  the  cane  sprouts,  are 
then  set  out,  and  the  yam  and  taro  planted.  So  far  the  labor 
is  mainly  performed  by  the  men ;  but  the  women  do  most 
of  the  weeding,  and  when  the  yams  and  taros  are  dug,  or 
other  fruits  gathered,  they  are  obliged  to  carry  them  to  the 
places  where  they  are  deposited  for  safe-keeping.  In  fact, 
nearly  all  burdens  are  borne  by  the  women  on  their  backs,  in 
jars  or  baskets,  which  are  secured  from  falling,  by  cords 
passing  round  and  under  the  shoulders.  Often  may  a  Feejee 
woman  be  seen  staggering  under  a  heavy  load,  like  the  squaw 
of  the  North  American  savage,  while  her  lord  and  master 
saunters  leisurely  along  at  her  side. 


1840.]  zoology.  339 

(4.)  All  the  quadrupeds,  except  the  rat,  which,  as  in  New 
Zealand,  is  considered  game,  are  of  the  domestic  kinds.  Cattle, 
hogs,  and  fowls,  have  been  introduced  by  the  whites^  and  thrive 
very  well.  The  first  should,  perhaps,  be  excepted  from  this 
general  remark  ;  for,  though  the  islands  abound  in  excellent 
pasturage,  they  do  not  appear  to  multiply  very  fast ;  but  this 
is  probably  owing  to  the  want  of  due  attention,  or  the  im- 
proper selection  of  food.  There  are  but  few  reptiles — lizards 
and  snakes  being  the  most  common  ;  the  latter  are  often  wor- 
shipped as  spirits. 

Numerous  whales  frequent  the  neighboring  waters  for  three 
or  four  months  in  the  year ;  their  teeth  are  highly  prized  by 
the  natives,  yet,  notwithstanding  their  skilful  seamanship, 
they  seem  to  be  utterly  ignorant  of  the  mode  of  capturing 
them,  and  only  secure  those  which  are  driven  on  shore. 
Hawk's-bill  and  green  turtles  are  abundant ;  and  the  tortoise 
shell  obtained  from  the  former  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
articles  of  traffic  to  be  procured  in  the  islands :  these  animals 
are  caught  in  nets  of  sennit  made  of  the  husks  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  and  are  kept  in  pens.  The  average  weight  of  the  shell 
is  about  fourteen  pounds,  and  it  is  often  stripped  off  without 
killing  the  animal.  Crustacea  are  in  great  abundance,  and 
the  most  delicious  crabs  are  found  among  the  mangrove 
bushes.  Shellfish  of  all  kinds  are  obtained  in  plenty.  The 
conch  shell  is  the  native  trumpet  or  horn.  Other  beautiful 
varieties  of  shells,  and  especially  the  cyprcea  ovula,  are  col- 
lected in  large  quantities  for  decorating  their  canoes,  the  ridge 
poles  of  their  houses,  and  other  ornamental  work.  Fish  are 
plentiful  in  the  ocean,  and  in  the  rivers  and  streams;  they 
are  speared,  or  taken  with  bone  hooks  or  in  nets  of  sennit ; 
and  sometimes  they  are  driven  into  pens  formed  of  rocks  and 
stones  in  the  shallow  water,  where  they  are  easily  speared  or 
caught  by  hand,  or  they  are  poisoned  by  throwing  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  the  glycine,  a  climbing  plant,  into  the  water 
where  they  abound. 

A  green  salt  water  worm,  called  balolo,  is  eaten  by  the 
natives,  and  is  considered  quite  a  delicacy.     But  the  biche  de 


340  BICHE    DE    MER.  [1840. 

mer,  or  sea  slug,  is  the  most  highly  prized  of  the  animals  of 
this  genus.  It  is  from  two  to  nine  inches  in  length,  resembles 
a  caterpillar  in  its  motions,  and  feeds  by  suction.  There  are 
several  different  sorts,  and  they  are  of  various  colors,  being 
red,  white,  gray,  yellow,  brown  or  black.  They  live  among 
the  rocks  and  in  the  holes  of  the  coral  reefs,  where  the  water 
is  from  one  to  two  fathoms  deep,  and  are  caught  by  the  na- 
tives, who  either  dive  for  them,  or  fish  by  moonlight  or  torch- 
light. Traders  frequently  visit  the  islands,  and  make  arrange- 
ments with  a  prominent  chief  for  the  services  of  the  natives 
in  procuring  the  desired  supply.  After  the  animals  are 
caught,  they  are  placed  in  bins,  where  their  entrails  are 
ejected ;  the  next  process  is  to  cut  them  open,  and  they  are 
then  boiled,  and  thoroughly  dried  in  a  building  erected  for  the 
purpose  by  the  person  engaged  in  the  fishery.  When 
completely  cured  in  this  manner,  they  are  fit  for  market,  and 
find  a  ready  sale  in  China,  where  they  are  esteemed  as  one 
of  the  richest  ingredients  of  their  soups.  Some  of  the  species 
of  biche  de  mer  are  eaten  raw  by  the  natives  of  the  Feejee 
Group. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  singing  birds  in  the  group. 
There  are  parrots  and  parroquets,  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
richly  variegated  plumage.  Wild  ducks  and  pigeons,  too,  are 
quite  common.  All  the  different  kinds  of  sea  fowl  usually 
seen  in  the  Polynesian  groups,  may  be  found  on  the  coasts. 

(5.)  A  disciple  of  Lavater  would  form  a  pretty  correct  idea 
of  the  Feejee  Islander  from  his  physiognomy.  The  remark- 
able prominence  of  the  cheek  bones,  and  the  projection  of  the 
jaws,  indicative  of  the  coarse  and  animal  natures  of  the  pos- 
sessors, would  not  escape  notice.  The  organs  of  taste  and 
smell  are  unusually  developed.  In  their  countenances  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  Malay  and  the  Papuan  seem  to  be 
blended.  There  are  different  shades  of  complexion,  generally 
many  degrees  darker  than  that  of  the  Tonga  Islander,  some 
being  as  fair  as  the  lightest  mulatto,  and  others  dark  as  the 
sootiest  negro.  Their  foreheads  are  high,  but  often  narrow  ; 
their  noses  well-formed,  though  large  ;  and  their  teeth  white 


1840.]      PERSONAL    APPEARANCE    OF    THE    NATIVES.  341 

and  evenly  set.  Their  eyes  are  black  as  night,  and  when 
kindled  with  the  demoniacal  passions  so  easy  to  be  inflamed, 
they  glow  like  coals  of  fire.  The  forms  of  both  sexes  are  cast 
in  a  fine  mould,  and  corpulence  is  almost  unknown.  Their 
hair  is  naturally  black,  but  it  is  so  much  discolored  by  the 
use  of  the  ley  obtained  from  the  ashes  of  bread-fruit  leaves, 
lime,  white  clay,  and  other  substances,  to  destroy  the  vermin, 
that  it  often  assumes  a  reddish  appearance.  The  women, 
too,  dye  their  hair  with  various  pigments  for  the  sake  of  im- 
proving their  beauty,  of  which  last  commodity,  however,  they 
do  not  ordinarily  possess  a  superabundance,  although  now 
and  then  a  tolerably  pretty  and  pleasing  face  may  be  seen. 
If  they  were  confined  more  to  their  houses  they  might  im- 
prove in  this  respect,  but  as  they  are  now  employed  for  a 
great  part  of  the  time  out  of  doors,  and  almost  in  a  nude 
state,  whatever  personal  charms  they  naturally  possess  soon  be- 
come impaired.  They  are  the  mere  creatures  and  slaves  of 
their  husbands,  yet  from  custom  and  habit  seem  to  bow  them- 
selves willingly  to  the  yoke. 

It  is  usual  among  the  Feejeeans  to  wear  moustaches,  and 
to  allow  the  beard  to  grow  long.  The  hair  of  the  boys  is 
kept  cropped  short,  in  order  to  keep  out  all  strange  intruders, 
with  the  exception  of  a  single  lock  which  is  allowed  to  grow, 
till  they  arrive  at  man's  estate,  when  it  is  spread  out  in  a 
mop-like  form,  and  often  frizzled  with  great  care  and  skill  by 
the  native  barbers.  Instead  of  the  curling-irons  of  the  friseur, 
a  long  and  slender  hair-pin,  made  of  tortoise-shell  or  bone,  is 
used  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  the  chiefs  keep  several  bar- 
bers among  their  retainers,  and  spend  a  great  deal  of  time 
in  dressing  their  heads,  and  their  beards  and  moustaches. 
Cocoa-nut  oil,  scented  with  sandal- wood,  is  liberally  applied  to 
their  hair.  This  singular  mode  of  wearing  that  useful  appen- 
dage gives  the  Feejeean  dandies  a  most  strange  appearance  ; 
but  they  pride  themselves  much  on  the  exquisite  finish  of  their 
toilet,  and  like  other  fops,  will  spend  hour  after  hour  in  sur- 
veying themselves  in  a  mirror.  The  loss  of  the  hair  is 
esteemed  a  great  misfortune,  and  its  place  is  always  supplied 


342  CHARACTER.  [1840 

by  wigs,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  the  native  barbers  dis- 
play considerable  skill,  and  often  imitate  nature  so  closely  that 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  counterfeit  except  by  care- 
ful observation. 

The  girls  wear  their  hair  long,  and  are  fond  of  ornament- 
ing it  with  pretty  flowers.  After  they  are  married,  however, 
their  locks  are  cut  off,  and  their  hair  frizzled  like  that  of  the 
men. 

It  is  not  difficult  for  the  Feejeean  to  put  on  a  friendly  man- 
ner, even  when  the  demon  of  malice  and  revenge  is  lurking 
in  his  heart.  He  is  proud,  irascible,  treacherous,  and  vindic- 
tive; haughty  to  his  inferiors,  and  abject  and  servile  to  those 
who  are  above  him.  When  he  speaks  fair  words,  he  is  rarely 
to  be  trusted.  He  will  lie  and  steal  with  the  utmost  effron- 
tery ;  and  if  anything  excites  his  covetous  disposition,  he 
will  commit  any  crime  to  obtain  it.  He  is  changeable  in 
mood  ;  at  one  time  appearing  jocose  in  disposition  and  fond 
of  merriment,  and  at  another  sullen,  morose,  and  reserved, 
or  giving  way  to  the  fierce  passions  that  may  be  smothered 
for  a  time,  but  are  always  kept  alive  in  his  bosom.  He  can 
be  kind  and  hospitable  to  a  guest,  and  will  not  molest  him  at 
his  own  fireside,  but  once  across  his  threshold,  he  will  murder 
him  with  as  little  compunction  as  a  tiger  devours  its  prey. 

The  common  people,  or  kai-sis,  are  more  industrious  than 
the  Tahitian,  and  all  possess  greater  activity  and  energy  of 
mind  and  body  ;  but  they  are  nearly  as  licentious,  and  many 
of  the  chiefs  are  equally  indolent.  The  domestic  affections  are 
not  strongly  manifested,  though  instances  of  devoted  personal 
attachment  are  by  no  means  rare.  They  will  not  tolerate 
drones  among  them,  and  deformed  children,  and  old  and  in- 
firm people,  are  put  to  death :  this  is  often  done  by  the  nearest 
relatives,  and  not  so  much  from  a  want  of  affection,  as  for 
the  reason  that  they  wish  to  relieve  themselves  from  a  bur- 
den, and  to  save  their  victims  from  living  on  in  misery  or  dis- 
tress. Their  appetites  are  grossly  sensual,  and  their  tastes 
depraved.  They  wear  very  little  clothing,  but  are  carefui 
not  to  expose  their  whole  persons  in  public ;  yet  the  women 


1840.]  CANNIBALISM.  343 

are  not  over  chaste,  and  the  men  will  prostitute  their  wives 
and  daughters  for  a  compensation,  or  sometimes  from  motives 
of  friendship.  Their  cannibal  propensities  are  unusually  strong, 
and  they  feed  upon  the  bodies  of  their  victims  with  a  hearty 
relish.  These  are  obtained  in  war,  or  are  selected  by  the 
chiefs.  If  a  canoe  be  upset,  the  occupants  are  prize  to  those 
who  rescue  them ;  and  when  a  chief  launches  a  new  vessel, 
he  slaughters  a  number  of  his  retainers,  or  the  prisoners  he 
may  have  taken  for  the  purpose,  on  its  deck,  after  which  their 
corpses  are  cooked  and  served  up  in  a  horrid  repast.  Great 
feasts  are  often  made,  for  which  human  victims  are  provided  : 
when  the  bodies  are  cooked,  they  are  dissected  with  as  much 
skill  as  could  be  displayed  by  a  surgical  operator,  and  dis- 
tributed among  the  guests.  Women  are  frequently  captured 
when  they  have  strayed  away  from  home,  and  killed  and 
eaten :  their  flesh  is  more  highly  prized  than  that  of  the 
other  sex ;  and  there  are  choice  portions  of  the  body,  such  as  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  arm  and  the  thigh,  which  are  always  pre- 
ferred. Unnatural  as  it  may  seem,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
they  are  really  fond  of  this  sort  of  food.  The  earthen  pots  in 
which  it  is  cooked  are  used  for  no  other  purpose ;  it  is 
esteemed  as  a  luxury ;  and  women,  therefore,  are  forbidden 
to  eat  it,  though  it  is  said  the  wives  of  the  chiefs  often  par- 
take of  it  in  private.* 

Wars  between  the  various  tribes,  or  inhabitants  occupying 
different  districts,  are  very  frequent,  and  serve  to  increase  the 
natural  ferocity  of  their  dispositions.  These  often  grow  out 
of  difficulties  in  regard  to  women,  for,  though  prizing  them  at 
such  little  value,  the  men  are  prone  to  jealousy  where  their 
rights  are  invaded  without  their  consent,  and  will  promptly 
resent  the  taking  away  their  wives  and  daughters  by  force. 
Their  wars  are  sometimes  protracted  for  a  great  length  of  time, 
and  are  commonly  fierce  and  bloody.  When  one  of  the  rival  par- 

*  The  Feejee  chiefs  are  as  proud  of  the  heads  of  their  enemies  whom  they 
have  slain  and  eaten,  as  the  North  American  savage  of  the  scalps  he  has  taken  on 
the  war-path,  and  it  is  customary  to  preserve  them  in  earthen  jars,  as  the  trophies 
of  their  ferocious  warfare. 


344  MISSIONARIES.  [1840 

ties  acknowledges  itself  vanquished,  if  peace  cannot  be  ob- 
tained on  any  milder  terms,  the  chiefs  and  leading  men  crawl 
on  their  hands  to  the  conquerors  and  humbly  sue  for  mercy. 
This  is  not  always  accorded,  but  the  victors  generally  content 
themselves  with  taking  the  daughters  of  the  chiefs,  who  ara 
brought  by  the  suppliants  and  tendered  to  the  vanquishers 
and  selecting  some  of  the  lower  class  of  the  people  for  vic- 
tims at  their  cannibal  feasts. 

The  Feejeean  is  not  deficient  in  intelligence ;  he  is  shrewd, 
apt  to  learn,  skilful,  and  cunning.  But  his  soul  is  uninformed 
by  that  moral  beauty  which  might  relieve  or  conceal  the  dark 
and  repulsive  features  of  his  character.  In  this  respect,  how 
great  is  the  contrast  between  him  and  the  matchless  scenery 
by  which  he  is  surrounded,  whose  purity  he  has  desecrated,  and 
whose  beauty  sullied,  by  crimes  the  most  odious,  and  customs 
the  most  abhorrent.  In  the  midst  of  all  that  can  please  the 
taste,  or  charm  the  fancy,  or  gratify  the  imagination — where 
everything  is  fair,  and  bright,  and  beautiful — where  the 
dreamy  haze  of  a  tropical  clime  rests  lovingly  on  hill-top  and 
valley — where  the  sun  smiles  in  gladness  upon  landscapes 
picturesque  and  charming  as  the  sweet  spots,  buried  in  foliage 
and  flowers,  that  nestle  in  the  bosom  of  the  Italian  Alps — 
where  brook  and  fountain  send  forth  unrestrained  their  un- 
ceasing melody — where  the  breezes  are  soft  and  balmy,  and 
the  perfumed  breath  of  an  unending  summer  fills  the  air  with 
its  intoxicating  odor — man  is  alone  debased.  Nature  dis- 
plays her  brightest  charms,  and  revels  in  her  gayest  attire — 
but  God's  own  image  is  loathsome  and  deformed ! 

Here  is,  indeed,  a  field  for  the  missionary, — and  laborers 
are  not  wanting.  In  fulfilment  of  the  divine  command — 
"Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  gospel !" — the  hum- 
ble, self-denying,  and  persevering  followers  of  Wesley,  have 
found  their  way  to  this  group.  At  Lakemba,  Somu-Somu, 
Levuka,  and  Rewa,  they  have  permanently  established  them- 
selves. Hitherto  their  labors  have  been  attended  with  little 
success,  except  among  the  natives  of  the  Eastern  Group,  but 
it  may  be  as  true  in  the  moral  condition  of  man,  as  it  is  in 


1840.J  population.  345 

nature,  that  "  the  darkest  hour  is  that  which  just  precedes 
the  dawn."  At  least,  if  they  accomplish  nothing  more,  they 
may  produce  an  impression  on  the  rising  generation,  who  are 
willingly  placed  under*  their  instruction,  that  will  be  lasting 
and  beneficial  in  its  effects. 

(6.)  In  the  whole  Feejee  Group,  there  are  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  inhabitants.  Vanua-levui  and  Viti- 
levui  contain  about  forty  thousand  each,  Ovolau  eight  thou- 
sand, Kantavu  fifteen  thousand,  Vuna  seven  thousand,  and 
Nairai  seven  thousand.  The  population  is  divided  into  five 
classes — the  kings,  chiefs,  warriors,  landholders  (mantaniva- 
nua),  and  common  people,  or  slaves,  called  kai-sis.  The  kai-sis 
are  by  far  the  most  numerous  class,  but  they  are  much  op- 
pressed by  their  superiors,  and  sometimes  rise  in  rebellion  : 
this  class,  too,  in  appearance  and  character,  resemble  the 
Papuan,  while  the  others  are  more  like  the  Malay. 

There  are  a  number  of  kings  in  the  group,  and  there  are 
several  on  the  two  principal  islands.  They  are  nominally  in- 
dependent of  each  other,  but  many  of  them  pay  tribute  to 
their  brother  sovereigns.  Ambau  is  the  great  centre  of  power, 
and  the  king  of  that  district  is  generally  feared  and  respected 
throughout  the  group.  The  political  power  is  wielded  mainly 
by  the  kings  and  chiefs,  who  are  complete  despots  so  far  as 
they  can  be,  and  the  warriors  and  landholders  are  more  or  less 
under  their  control.  As  in  many  other  countries  more  ad- 
vanced in  civilization,  the  influence  of  the  native  priests  is 
exerted  to  sustain  the  government,  and  prevent  the  spread  of 
disaffection  among  the  lower  classes. 

(7.)  The  males,  among  the  common  people,  rarely  wear 
any  other  article  of  clothing  except  the  maro.  The  chiefs 
have  the  ends  of  the  maro  lengthened  before  and  behind,  so 
as  to  nearly  touch  the  ground,  when  it  is  called  seavo.  Some- 
times the  seavo  is  fifty  yards  long,  and  on  state  occasions  is 
upheld  by  a  train-bearer.  Parens,  similar  to  those  of  the 
Samoans,  are  also  occasionally  worn  by  the  chiefs  ;  but  their 
principal  distinguishing  mark,  so  far  as  regards  dress,  is  the 
turban,  or  sala,  which  is  made  of  the  finest  tapa,  of  gauze- 


15 


.-.  ■;.- 


346  dress.  [1840. 

like  texture,  and  worn  about  the  head  in  several  folds.  Thus 
furnished,  the  Feejee  chief  looks  much  like  a  half-naked  Moor. 
Wreaths  of  flowers  are  frequently  wound  round  the  salas,  or 
the  feathers  of  the  parroquet  attached  on  the  inside  by  the 
gum  of  the  bread-fruit  tree.  Necklaces  of  shells,  or  the 
teeth  of  the  whale,  or  those  of  human  victims ;  and  armlets 
made  of  the  trochus-shell  ground  down  into  rings  ;  likewise 
adorn  the  persons  of  the  chiefs.  Single  shells  of  the  valuable 
kinds  are  worn  by  the  high  chiefs,  depending  from  their  necks, 
and  are  handed  down  from  father  to  son.  They  have  a  comb, 
or  hair-pricker,  made  of  bone,  or  stiff  splints  of  reed,  which 
is  worn  by  the  king  as  a  coronet  in  front  of  his  mop  of  hair ; 
the  chiefs  wear  their  combs  a  little  at  one  side,  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  prerogative  of  royalty  ;  and  the  kai-sis  stick 
it  behind  their  ears. 

One  only  garment,  and  that  very  diminutive  in  extent,  is 
worn  by  the  women.  This  is  the  liku,  an  elastic  band,  bor- 
dered on  the  lower  side  with  fringe  dyed  either  red  or  black, 
which  is  neatly  braided  of  the  bark  of  the  hibiscus.  It  is 
worn  about  the  loins,  and  for  a  maiden  is  only  three  inches 
wide,  but  married  women,  after  they  have  borne  children, 
lengthen  it  considerably.  Tapa  cloth  is  absolutely  forbidden 
to  be  worn  by  the  softer  sex.  They  sometimes  wear  neck- 
laces of  shells,  and  adorn  their  persons  with  wreaths  of 
flowers.  Both  sexes  bore  holes  in  the  lobes  of  their  ears, — 
which  are  often  distended  so  as  to  admit  the  whole  hand, — 
and  insert  in  them  gay  feathers  and  beautiful  flowers. 

As  has  been  before  remarked,  their  toilets  occupy  a  great 
share  of  the  time  and  attention  of  the  natives,  considering 
the  small  quantity  of  clothing  which  they  wear.  Dressing 
the  hair,  combing,  frizzling,  greasing  it  with  cocoa-nut  oil, 
and  daubing  it  over  with  ivory-black  or  some  other  dyeing 
material,  are  all  matters  of  the  first  importance.  Bathing  is 
attended  to  punctually  by  all  sexes  and  classes,  after  which 
their  bodies  are  anointed  with  oil  and  turmeric,  to  prevent 
taking  cold,  and  for  the  sake  of  beauty.  Paint  is  lavishly 
used  by  both  sexes  on  the  face  ;  no  color  is  ever  absolutely 


1840.]  customs.  347 

discarded,  but  vermilion,  for  ornamenting  the  tip  of  the  nose, 
is  considered  almost  priceless, — and  the  surest  way  to  win 
the  favor  of  the  Feejeean  is  to  present  him  with  a  small 
quantity  of  this  pigment. 

Tattooing  is  performed  only  on  the  females,  by  persons  ol 
the  same  sex.  It  is  mainly  confined  to  the  lips  and  corners 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  parts  covered  by  the  liku — the  latter 
only  being  the  most  commonly  tattooed.  Ornaments  about 
the  wrists  and  ankles  are  rarely  seen.  This  decoration  of  the 
body  is  regarded  as  highly  important ;  it  being  thought  essen- 
tial to  the  safe  passage  of  the  women  to  the  other  world.  It 
is  performed  about  the  age  of  puberty  (usually  fourteen 
years,) — and  this  period  is  celebrated  by  the  young  damsel 
and  her  associates.  Circumcision  is  practiced  on  boys,  as 
part  of  the  ceremonies  at  the  burial  of  chiefs,  or  on  other 
great  occasions,  and  it  is  said  that  a  similar  custom  is  ob- 
served with  regard  to  the  other  sex  in  some  districts. 

In  sitting  down  the  males  rest  their  bodies  on  their 
haunches,  and  dispose  of  their  limbs  by  curling  them  up  in 
front.  The  women  assume  a  sort  of  oblique  kneeling  posture, 
so  as  not  to  expose  their  persons,  sitting,  as  it  were,  on  the 
calves  of  their  legs. 

Baked  pig,  bread-fruit,  taro,  and  yams — -the  last  three  pre- 
pared in  various  ways, — are  the  articles  of  food  most  com- 
monly eaten.  They  have  also  several  agreeable  preparations 
of  the  cocoa-nut  which  are  made  use  of  Bananas  and 
plantains  are  eaten,  but  are  not  so  highly  prized  as  the  other 
edible  productions  of  the  group.  The  food  of  the  common 
people  is  principally  of  a  vegetable  character.  Fish  and 
fowls  often  appear  on  the  tables  of  the  chiefs.  Human  flesh, 
as  has  been  mentioned,  is  a  rarity.  Their  cooking  is  prin- 
cipally performed  by  steam.  For  this  purpose  they  use 
earthen  pots  made  by  themselves,  in  which  their  food  is 
placed  with  a  small  quantity  of  water.  These  pots  are 
manufactured  by  women  who  follow  this  employment  only; 
they  are  made  of  clay,  which  is  first  fashioned  into  nearly  the 
desired  shape  with  the  hand ;  a  smooth  round  stone  is  then  in- 


348  MODE    OF   COOKING    AND    EATING.  [1840 

serted,  and  the  clay  beaten  or  moulded  about  it  with  a  mallet. 
If  the  vessel  is  to  have  but  a  small  opening,  it  is  first  made  in 
two  or  more  pieces,  which  are  afterwards  joined  together  with 
great  skill.  Figures  are  traced  upon  them,  if  required,  with 
the  fibres  of  a  cocoa-nut  leaf.  The  pots  are  now  baked  be- 
fore an  open  fire,  and  finished  off  by  glazing,  or  varnishing 
them,  with  the  resin  of  the  Feejee  pine,  mixed  with  a  de- 
coction of  the  mangrove  bark. 

In  serving  up  their  food,  the  natives  are  certainly  very  neat, 
as  everything  is  nicely  wrapped  up  in  fresh  banana  leaves. 
There  is  as  much  regularity  in  the  courses,  at  the  tables  of 
the  chiefs,  as  in  the  fashionable  hotels  of  Europe  and  America ; 
and  when  a  new  dish  is  to  be  brought  on,  the  mats  and  other 
appendages  previously  used,  are  first  removed.  They  usu- 
ally eat  with  their  fingers.  Their  principal  meal  is  at  the 
close  of  the  day,  or  in  the  evening.  The  common  people  are, 
of  course,  obliged  to  work  most  of  the  time  ;  but  the  aristoc- 
racy spend  the  greater  part  of  the  day  at  their  toilets,  and  in 
visiting. 

Ava-drinking  is  a  national  vice.  The  ava  is  prepared  in 
the  familiar  mode  common  throughout  Polynesia  ;  their  bowls 
are  sometimes  over  three  feet  in  diameter.  Partaking  of  this 
beverage  is  quite  a  ceremony  in  the  houses  of  the  chiefs,  and 
it  is  always  brought  to  an  end  by  a  shout  and  a  general 
clapping  of  the  hands  on  the  thighs. 

Dancing  is  esteemed  a  great  accomplishment,  and  there  are 
regular  dancing  masters  and  mistresses  employed  to  perfect  the 
young  men  and  maidens  in  this  art.  Terpsichore  would  be 
shamed,  however,  could  she  witness  the  manner  in  which  her 
votaries  display  themselves  in  these  islands.  Their  motions  are 
mere  writhings  and  contortions  of  the  body,  accompanied  with 
monotonous  chants,  "clapping  of  the  hands,  and  beating  of  the 
hollow  drum.  Other  amusements  are  resorted  to  among: 
them  to  pass  away  the  time  agreeably ;  the  young  women 
have  a  kind  of  game,  like  forfeits ;  and  the  young  men  prac- 
tice archery  and  throwing  the  spear.  Hunting  and  fishing 
are  favorite  pastimes.     The  former  is  now  often  done  with 


1840.]  TREATMENT    OF    WOMEN.  349 

the  musket,  with  the  use  of  which  they  have  become  pretty- 
well  acquainted. 

The  language  of  the  Feejeean  has  most  of  the  character- 
istics usually  noticed  in  the  dialects  of  Polynesia.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly full  and  copious.  They  have  an  appropriate  term 
for  every  passion  and  emotion  of  the  mind,  and  for  every 
species  of  plants,  trees,  fruits,  flowers,  and  animals,  that  is 
found  in  the  group. 

Polygamy  is  common.  Every  man  has  as  many  wives  as 
he  can  afford  to  keep.  The  higher  chiefs  sometimes  have 
from  one  to  two  hundred ;  but  the  middling  classes  content 
themselves  with  ten  or  a  dozen  ;  and  the  poor  kai-si  is  unable 
to  indulge  in  the  luxury  of  more  than  one.  Wives  are  procured 
by  making  presents  to  the  parents,  or  by  capturing  them  from 
a  hostile  tribe.  The  marriage  ceremony  is  performed  by  the 
priests,  who  enjoin  upon  the  parties  the  duty  of  loving, 
honoring,  and  obeying,  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
civilized  countries.  Adultery  is  punished  by  the  injured 
husband,  if  he  possesses  the  power,  with  great  severity,  often 
in  a  mode  too  disgusting  to  be  mentioned.  When  a  chief 
dies  some  of  his  wives  are  usually  strangled,  either  with  or 
without  their  consent,  and  buried  with  him.  Old  people  are 
frequently  put  to  death,  at  their  own  desire,,  to  escape  decrepi- 
tude, and  are  sometimes  forcibly  strangled,  or  buried  alive,  by 
their  children.  Persons  in  an  infirm  condition,  or  sick  of  a 
lingering  disease,  are  often  served  in  the  same  manner. 

The  women  are  the  mere  slaves  of  their  husbands,  and  are 
beaten  by  them  at  pleasure.  From  fear,  rather  than  affection, 
they  are  generally  faithful.  Parturition  is  not  severe  among 
them,  probably  on  account  of  their  active  habits  of  life ;  and 
some  women  will  resume  their  ordinary  occupations  within  an 
hour  after  their  delivery. 

The  Feejeean  has  a  great  number  of  divinities.  The  prin- 
cipal one  is  Ndengei,  who  is  worshipped  in  the  form  of  a 
large  serpent.  There  are  many  subordinate  deities,  some 
good  and  others  evil.  They  have  a  tradition  that  all  men  are 
descended  of  one  pair  of  parents,  and  that  they  are  darker 


350  SUPERSTITIONS.  [1840. 

colored  than  the  Tongese,  or  the  whites,  because  they  have 
behaved  so  badly.  They  have  likewise  a  tradition  of  a  great 
deluge  happening .  many  years  ago,  which  destroyed  all  the 
persons  on  the  island  except  eight.  Mbures,  or  spirit-houses, 
are  the  temples  in  which  they  deposit  their  offerings  to  their 
gods.  These  are  held  very  sacred,  and  women  are  not  allowed 
to  enter  them.  Their  priests,  called  ambati,  constitute  a 
separate  and  distinct  class,  and  possess  great  influence  over 
the  lower  orders  of  the  population.  Human  sacrifices  to  their 
deities  are  quite  common.  They  have  also  a  great  festival, 
or  harvest  moon,  to  celebrate  the  ingathering  of  their  fruits. 

After  death,  the  natives  of  this  group  believe  their  spirits 
go  immediately  to  Ndengei,  by  whom  they  are  judged ;  some 
of  them  are  allotted  to  the  devils,  who  roast  and  eat  them, 
and  others  are  sent  to  an  island,  variously  located  by  the  dif- 
ferent tribes,  where  they  remain  for  a  certain  period,  and  are 
then  annihilated.  There  are,  of  course,  various  shades  of 
belief,  and  modifications  of  their  superstitions,  prevailing  in 
the  group  ;  for  instance,  there  are  some  who  think  the  spirit 
is  purified  by  Ndengei,  after  which  it  returns  to  hover  about 
its  former  place  of  abode.  The  idea  of  a  second  death,  how- 
ever, in  some  form  or  other,  is  common  throughout  the  islands. 

(8.)  The  houses  of  the  Feejeeans  are  of  an  oblong  form, 
except  in  the  Eastern  Group,  where  they  are  oval.  They  are 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  long,  and  usually  about  fif- 
teen feet  wide.  The  harems  of  the  chiefs,  however,  are  often 
huge  barn-like  structures,  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet  long. 
They  consist  of  a  frame-work  of  cocoa-nut  posts  and  sills, 
with  rafters  ascending  to  a  ridge  pole  as  in  American  houses. 
The  roofs  have  a  steep  pitch,  and  are  thatched  with  wild 
cane.  The  ridge  pole  projects  several  feet  at  either  end,  and 
is  often  fancifully  adorned  with  the  cyprma  ovula,  or  other 
beautiful  shells.  The  sides  are  filled  in  with  reeds  and  cane 
woven  neatly  together.  All  the  lashings  are  of  sennit,  and 
considerable  pains  are  often  taken  in  ornamenting  the  fronts 
of  the  houses  with  prettily  braided  lattice  work  of  the  same 
material,  or  of  willow  or  cane.    On  the  island  of  Vanua-levui, 


1840.]  houses.  351 

it  is  customary  to  allow  the  eaves  of  the  houses  to  project 
till  they  touch  the  ground.  Sometimes,  too,  they  are  built 
in  an  elliptical  form,  like  those  of  the  Tongese,  but  the  ridge 
pole  always  projects.  They  have  yam-houses,  which  are 
elevated  on  four  posts  to  keep  out  the  rats  and  mice,  and 
covered  with  thatch,  to  preserve  the  roots  dry. 

Mbures,  or  spirit-houses,  are  constructed  after  the  same 
general  fashion,  except  that  their  roofs  are  steeper.  \  They 
are  sometimes  circular,  and  are  placed  either  on  stone  plat- 
forms, or  large  timbers  laid  across  each  other  in  a  rec- 
tangular form.  Many  of  the  towns,  or  koros,  as  they  are 
called,  are  fortified  with  embankments  of  earth  and  cocoa- 
nut  palisades  with  openings  or  creneles,  for  musketry ;  and  they 
are  provided  with  gateways,  as  in  the  Tonga  Islands.  Forti- 
fications are  likewise  erected,  to  which  they  retire  for  safety 
when  attacked  by  their  enemies,  which  consist  of  stone  walls, 
composed  of  blocks  of  basalt,  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  sur- 
rounded by  moats  ten  feet  wide,  and  from  five  to  six  feet 
deep.  Bridges,  also,  are  frequently  built  over  their  streams, 
on  piles  made  of  cocoa-nut  wood. 

Inside  the  houses  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  tapa  mats, 
and  other  similar  articles.  Earthen  jars,  drinking  vessels, 
clubs,  spears,  muskets,  and  bows  and  arrows,  are  the  ordi- 
nary embellishments.  At  one  side  of  the  centre,  is  a  pit,  or 
platform  of  stones,  where  the  fire  is  built,  and  the  cooking 
performed.  The  rest  of  the  floor  is  for  the  most  part  covered 
with  mats,  and  one  end  is  elevated  like  a  dais,  by  the  same 
means,  where  the  couches  for  repose  are  arranged.  This  por- 
tion of  the  apartment  is  often  separated  into  divisions  by  tapa 
mats  or  screens,  and  liberally  provided  with  musquito  nettings. 
They  sleep  on  mats,  with  pillows  of  bamboo  resting  on  four 
legs.  The  latter  often  produce  a  scirrhous  lump  at  the  back 
of  the  head  where  it  joins  the  neck,  and  it  seems  strange 
enough  that  the  natives  do  not  substitute  in  their  stead  the 
softer  material  of  their  tapa  mats. 

Their  canoes  are  of  superior  construction,  and  are  managed 
with  more  than  ordinary  skill.      The  bottom  consists  of  a 


352  canoes.  [1840. 

single  plank  of  pine  timber,  or  bread-fruit,  dovetailed  to  the 
sides,  which  surround  a  frame-work  of  ribs  lashed  securely 
together  with  sennit.  The  joints  and  chinks  are  closed  with 
the  gum  of  the  bread-fruit  tree,  with  which  also  the  sides  are 
varnished.  In  other  respects  they  resemble  those  of  the  Ton- 
gese,  before  described  ;*  indeed,  that  people  have  imitated  the 
Feejeeans,  and  frequently  resort  to  this  group  to  construct  their 
craft.  The  canoes  are  likewise  managed  in  a  similar  manner 
with  those  in  the  Tonga  Islands.  They  are  often  fancifully 
ornamented  with  the  shells  of  the  cyprcea  ovula,  and  have 
beautifully  white,  or  party-colored  sails  of  tapa  cloth,  decora- 
ted with  long  pennants  and  streamers.  When  scudding  be- 
fore the  wind,  though  trembling  like  an  aspen  leaf  at  every 
plunge,  they  present  a  most  magnificent  appearance. 

Great  ingenuity  and  skill  are  exhibited  by  the  natives  in 
building  their  houses  and  canoes;  and  their  mechanical  ex- 
pertness  is  far  superior  to  that  of  most  other  Polynesians. 
Prior  to  their  intercourse  with  the  whites,  they  had  only  a 
few  rude  tools,  among  which  were  an  adze,  and  a  hatchet,  made 
of  bone  ;  a  knife  of  bamboo  cut  down  to  an  edge  when  green, 
and  afterwards  dried  and  charred ;  gimlets  of  bones,  and  the 
long  spines  of  the  echina ;  and  carving  instruments  of  the 
teeth  of  rats  and  mice  set  in  pieces  of  iron- wood.  They  now 
make  their  adzes  of  plane-irons  lashed  to  crooked  sticks  with 
sennit,  and  use  hatchets  of  American  or  European  manufact- 
ure when  they  can  be  obtained. 

(9.)  Tortoise  shell,  biche  de  mer,  and  the  whales  frequent- 
ing the  neighborhood  of  the  Feejee  Islands,  are  the  only  in- 
ducements for  vessels  to  make  voyages  thither,  except  it  be 
merely  to  obtain  water  and  provisions.  Tortoise  shell  sells 
readily  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  for  seven  or  eight 
dollars  the  pound,  and  a  picult  of  biche  de  mer  brings  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  dollars  in  the  Chinese  market.  Axes, 
hatchets,  plane-irons,  gimlets,  scissors,  knives,  beads,  ver- 
milion, muskets,  powder,  trunks  and  chests,  looking-glasses, 

*  Ante,  pp.  321,  322.  f  The  picul  is  about  133J  pounds  avoirdupois. 


1840.]  MOVEMENTS    OP   THE    SQUADRON.  353 

buttons,  bottles,  and  brushes,  are  the  articles  best  suited  for 
traffic  in  these  islands. 

(10.)  Shortly  after  the  arrival  of  the  American  Squadron 
in  the  Feejee  Group,  a  prominent  native  chief,  by  the  name 
of  Vendovi,  who  had  been  one  of  the  chief  instigators  and 
actors  in  the  murder  of  a  part  of  the  crew  of  an  American 
vessel,  several  years  previous,  was  captured  by  the  address 
of  Captain  Hudson.*  This  had  the  effect  to  intimidate  the 
natives,  to  some  extent,  and  the  friendly  footing  established 
by  Captain  Wilkes  with  the  king  of  Ambau,  served  for  a 
long  time  to  protect  the  American  vessels  and  their  crews 
from  molestation.  But  it  was  natural,  perhaps,  that  the  many 
new  articles  which  the  savages  saw  should  excite  their  cu- 
pidity ;  and  on  the  12th  of  July,  a  cutter  was  lost  on  the  reefs 
in  Sualib  Bay,  twenty-five  miles  east  of  Mbua  Bay,  in  the 
island  of  Vanua-levui.  Parties  of  natives  had  been  hovering 
along  the  shore  all  day,  and  when  they  discovered  that  the 
cutter  had  grounded,  they  rushed  forward  and  captured  it 
with  everything  it  contained,  except  the  arms  and  chronom- 
eters, with  which  the  crew  succeeded  in  making  their  es- 
cape. Restitution,  and  prompt  satisfaction  for  the  outrage, 
were  forthwith  demanded  by  Captain  Wilkes.  After  some 
parleying  the  boat  was  restored,  but  without  the  property. 
Becoming  satisfied  from  the  numerous  prevarications  of  the 
natives,  that  they  were  trifling  with  him,  the  American 
commander  ordered  Captain  Hudson  to  land  with  an  armed 
party  and  destroy  the  town  of  Tye  on  Sualib  Bay,  where 
the  natives  concerned  in  the  capture  of  the  cutter  were 
known  to  have  collected.  This  was  effected  on  the  13th  of 
July  :  the  natives  were  driven  from  their  koro,  which  con- 
tained about  sixty  houses  ;  and  the  buildings  were  then  fired 
and  burnt  to  the  ground,  together  with  a  number  of  yam- 
houses  in  the  vicinity.  Several  chiefs  were  captured,  but,  it 
being  ascertained  that  they  were  not  concerned  in  the  outrage, 
they  were  restored  to  liberty. 

*  Vendovi  was  brought  as  a  prisoner  to  the  United  States,  where  he  sickened 
and  died. 


354  MURDER   OF    AMERICAN    OFFICERS.  [1840. 

This  summary  chastisement  prevented  any  further  acts  of 
aggression  in  that  quarter ;  but  on  the  24th  of  the  same 
month,  a  still  more  lamentable  incident  occurred  at  the 
island  of  Malolo.  Strict  orders  had  been  issued  by  the  com- 
mander of  the  Squadron,  in  regard  to  their  intercourse  with 
the  natives,  while  engaged  in  prosecuting  the  survey  of  the 
group  ;  but  on  the  morning  of  the  24th,  Lieutenant  Under- 
wood went  ashore  from  the  first  cutter  of  the  Vincennes,  to 
obtain  provisions,  unfortunately  for  himself  neglecting  to  take 
with  him  a  sufficient  number  of  men  or  weapons.  On  discov- 
ering that  the  natives  manifested  symptoms  of  hostility,  a 
hostage  was  seized  and  sent  on  board  the  cutter,  which  now 
drew  in  towards  the  shore,  to  be  detained  as  a  prisoner  while 
the  party  were  engaged  in  bartering  with  his  fellows.  Con- 
siderable time  was  spent  in  chaffering,  and  the  natives  grad- 
ually collected  around  the  little  party  of  Lieutenant  Under- 
wood. In  the  meanwhile  the  latter  were  joined  by  Midship- 
man Henry  in  a  canoe.  One  or  two  attempts  were  made  by 
the  hostage  to  escape,  and  he  at  length  succeeded  in  plunging 
into  the  water,  when  he  struck  out  for  the  shore.  Shots 
were  fired  at  him,  but  without  effect. 

This  was  the  signal  for  the  attack,  which  had  no  doubt 
been  premeditated.  Lieutenant  Underwood  and  his  party 
were  instantly  beset  by  the  natives.  They  were  at  first  kept 
at  bay,  and  the  Americans  attempted  to  retreat  to  the  small 
boat,  which  they  had  left  over  six  hundred  yards  from  the 
beach,  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  the  water  on  the  reef. 
But  the  savages  were  not  to  be  balked,  and  they  now  pressed 
eagerly  on  the  feeble  band,  using  their  clubs  and  spears  with 
great  dexterity  and  effect.  Both  Lieutenant  Underwood  and 
Midshipman  Henry  defended  themselves  gallantly,  and  with 
praiseworthy  intrepidity,  but  overpowered  by  superior  num- 
bers, they  were  unable  to  make  their  escape,  and  were  at 
length  knocked  down  and  killed  by  the  natives  with  their 
clubs.  Others  of  the  party  were  severely  wounded,  but  none 
fatally  except  the  two  officers.  Lieutenants  Emmons  and 
Alden  had  witnessed  the  beginning  of  the  affray  from  the 


1840.]  CHASTISEMENT    OP   THE    NATIVES.  355 

cutter,  and  instantly  pulled  in  to  the  shore  in  their  small 
boats.  But  it  was  too  late  to  rescue  their  companions,  and 
they  had  only  the  melancholy  satisfaction  of  recovering  their 
dead  bodies. 

On  the  reception  of  this  sad  intelligence,  with  a  prompt- 
itude and  decision  worthy  of  commendation,  Captain  Wilkes 
determined  to  chastise  the  murderers  in  a  manner  that  would 
long  be  remembered.  The  first  duty,  however,  was  owing 
to  the  dead.  The  bodies  of  the  ill-starred  officers  were  buried 
on  one  of  the  deserted  islands  of  the  group,  and  the  cutters 
and  boats  of  the  Squadron  then  in  that  vicinity  were  stationed 
around  Malolo,  so  as  to  prevent  any  persons  making  their 
escape.  This  being  done,  the  Americans  landed  on  the  island 
in  two  divisions — one  commanded  by  Captain  Wilkes  in  per- 
son, and  the  other  by  Lieutenant  Ringgold— early  in  the 
morning  of  the  26th  of  July.  Two  of  the  native  towns,  the 
only  ones  upon  the  island,  were  completely  destroyed,  and  the 
plantations  of  the  inhabitants  laid  waste.  One  of  the  koros 
was  strongly  fortified,  and  offered  an  obstinate  resistance  to 
the  party  under  Lieutenant  Ringgold,  who  had  been  ordered 
to  attack  it.  A  warm  skirmish  ensued,  which  was  main- 
tained for  some  time  with  spirit  and  bravery  by  the  besieged 
as  well  as  the  assailing  force.  The  American  tars  were  not 
to  be  resisted,  however ;  unharmed  by  the  missiles  showered 
upon  them,  they  pressed  forward  to  the  ramparts,  applied 
torches  to  the  bamboo  work,  and  drove  the  enemy  from 
every  part  of  their  defences.  About  sixty  of  the  savages 
were  killed,  and  a  great  number  wounded.  Of  the  Ameri- 
cans but  one  was  wounded,  and  he  not  dangerously.  On 
the  following  day,  the  remainder  of  the  natives,  who  had 
made  their  escape  to  the  hills  in  the  interior,  appeared  before 
Captain  Wilkes  effectually  cowed  down,  and  sued  after  their 
own  abject  fashion  for  mercy  and  forgiveness.  This  was 
accorded,  but  accompanied  with  a  wholesome  admonition  for 
the  future.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add,  that  the  Amer- 
icans were  not  again  molested  while  they  remained  in  this 
vicinity. 


356  DEPARTURE    FROM    THE    GROUP.  [1840. 

All  the  islands  and  reefs  of  the  Feejee  Group  were  care- 
fully examined  and  surveyed  by  the  Squadron,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  part  of  the  southern  shore  of  Kantavu,  which 
was  known  to  have  been  included  in  the  surveys  of  M.  d'Ur- 
ville;  regulations  in  regard  to  vessels  frequenting  the  islands, 
for  traffic  or  other  purposes,  were  also  adopted  and  signed  by 
the  principal  kings ;  and  on  the  11th  of  August,  the  Ameri- 
cans finally  took  their  departure  for  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
with  hearts  saddened  by  the  recollection  of  the  severe  loss 
which  they  had  sustained. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

(1.)  The  Sandwich  Islands.  Discovery.  Geographical  Description. — (2.)  Char- 
acter of  the  Population.  Dress.  Manners  and  Customs. — (3.)  Government. 
Missionaries. — (4.)  Soil.  Climate.  Diseases. — (5.)  Vegetable  Productions. — 
(6.)  Birds  and  Animals. — (7  )  Principal  Towns  and  Harbors.  Dwelling 
Houses. — (8.)  Commerce  and  Manufactures.  Vessels. — (9.)  Departure  of  the 
American  Squadron. 

(1.)  With  the  acquisition  of  California  by  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  introduction  of  steam  naviga- 
tion in  the  Pacific,  commences  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands.  Heretofore  this  group  has  been  the 
mere  depot  of  stores  and  supplies  for  the  whalemen  of  the 
Pacific,  but,  for  the  future,  a  new  career  opens  before  it. 
A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  the  favorable  and  important 
position  which  it  occupies  with  reference  to  other  countries. 
Midway  it  is  placed,  directly  on  the  track  of  communication, 
between  two  worlds, — one  passing,  it  may  be,  into  decline, 
yet  still  teeming  with  the  rich  products  of  the  Orient — the 
other,  in  the  newness  and  freshness  of  youth,  possessing  min- 
eral and  agricultural  resources  without  parallel  in  the  world, 
inhabited  by  a  persevering,  energetic,  and  industrious  people, 
and  advancing  on  the  road  to  greatness  and  prosperity  with 
the  vigor  and  stride  of  a  giant.  On  the  one  hand  are  the 
silks,  the  teas,  and  the  spices,  of  China  and  the  East  Indies ; 
on  the  other,  the  treasures  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the 
cotton  and  corn  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  These  must 
be  exchanged  ;  and  San  Francisco  and  Canton  must  one  day 
become  to  the  Pacific,  what  New  York  and  Liverpool  now 
are  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  This  immense  trade  will,  of  ne- 
cessity, pass  directly  through  or  by  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
Whatever,  then,  may  be  their  fate,  in  a  political  sense, — 


358  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION.  [1840. 

whether,  fully  redeemed  from  the  darkness  of  Paganism,  they 
take  their  stand  permanently  among  the  nations  of  the  earth, 
or  fall  under  the  dominion  of  some  foreign  power, — their  des- 
tiny is  fixed. 

The  Sandwich,  or  Hawaiian  Islands,  as  they  have  been 
more  appropriately  termed  by  the  missionaries,  were  dis- 
covered in  the  year  1778,  by  Captain  Cook,  who  gave  them 
the  name  by  which  they  are  generally  known,  in  honor  of  the 
Earl  of  Sandwich,  then  first  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  Here, 
too,  on  the  shore  of  the  bay  of  Kealakekua,  upon  the  west 
side  of  the  island  of  Hawaii,  that  eminent  navigator  came  to  his 
tragic  and  untimely  end,  on  the  14th  day  of  February,  1779. 

These  islands  are  eleven  in  number,  and  are  many  hun- 
dred miles  distant  from  any  of  the  other  Polynesian  groups. 
They  lie  in  the  North  Pacific,  between  latitude  18°  50' 
and  22°  20'  N.,  and  longitude  154°  55'  and  160°  15'  W. 
Their  general  direction  is  from  southeast  to  north-west, — 
Hawaii,  the  southernmost  of  the  group,  being  about  two 
hundred  and  eighty  miles  distant  from  Kauai  and  Niihau, 
tho  two  islands  lying  furthest  to  the  north.  The  total  area 
of  all  the  islands  is  about  six  thousand  square  miles. 
The  principal  members  of  the  group  are  Hawaii,  Maui, 
Kahoolawe,  Lanai,  Molokai,  Oahu,  Kauai  and  Niihau :  the 
remaining  three,  Molokini,  Lehua,  and  Kaula,  are  mero 
rocky  and  barren  islets. 

Hawaii,  formerly  known  as  Owhyhee,  has  an  area  of  four 
thousand  square  miles,  being  about,  two  thirds  that  of  the  en- 
tire group.  It  is  eighty-eight  miles  in  length,  by  sixty-eight 
in  breadth.  The  surface  slopes  up  gradually  from  the  beach 
towards  the  interior,  which  is  a  broken,  elevated  plain,  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  with  here  and  there 
a  tall  conical  mountain-peak  rearing  its  jagged  front  to  the 
height  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  thousand  feet.  Overlooking 
Waiakea,  or  Hilo  Bay,  is  Mauna  Kea,  flanked  on  either  hand 
by  similar  peaks  of  less  altitude,  which  attains  an  elevation 
of  13,953  feet ;  and  just  to  the  east  of  Kealakekua  Bay,  is 
the  towering  dome  of  Mauna  Loa,  13,760  feet  above  the 


1840.]  MAUI — MOLOKAI — OAHU.  359 

(  ocean,  forever  belching  forth  its  volcanic  fires,  and  casting  its 
unearthly,  waving  shadow,  far  and  wide  over  the  broad  ocean. 

Maui  is  thirty  miles  north-west  of  Hawaii.  It  is  forty* 
eight  miles  in  length,  and  twenty-nine  in  breadth,  and  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  each  containing  its  separate  ridge  of  moun- 
tains, which  are  united  together  by  a  belt  or  isthmus  of  low 
ground.  Originally,  there  were,  in  all  probability,  two  distinct 
islands,  the  space  between  which  has  been  filled  up  by  the 
scoria  and  lava  thrown  from  their  respective  volcanoes  when 
in  a  state  of  active  operation.  West  Maui  is  considerably 
lower  than  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  but  both  are  high 
and  volcanic,  and,  like  Hawaii,  rise  gradually  from  the  shore 
to  the  mountainous  ridges  in  the  interior.  The  loftiest  peak 
on  the  island  is  Mauna  Haleakala,  or  the  "  House  of  the  Sun," 
whose  cleft  summit  overlooks  the  eastern  and  southern  shores 
of  East  Maui,  and  is  10,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean. — West  of  Maui,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  strait 
averaging  about  twelve  miles  in  width,  are  Lanai  and  Ka- 
hoolawe.  The  former  is  seventeen  miles  long,  and  nine  miles 
wide ;  it  is  shaped  like  a  dome,  and  in  the  centre,  or  highest 
part  of  the  island,  attains  an  elevation  of  sixteen  hundred 
feet.  Kahoolawe  lies  opposite  to  the  southern  coast  of  Maui, 
and  has  Lanai  on  its  north  ;  it  is  eleven  miles  long,  and  eight 
nailes  wide.  It  is  a  low,  uninviting  spot,  covered  with  barren 
peaks  and  ridges,  none  of  which  attain  a  greater  elevation 
than  two  hundred  feet,  and  is  tenanted  only  by  a  few  miser- 
able fishermen,  and  now  and  then  an  exile  sent  hither  by 
order  of  the  government. 

Eighteen  miles  north  of  Maui  and  Lanai,  and  separated 
from  them  by  the  Pailolo  channel,  is  Molokai.  This  island 
is  forty  miles  long,  from  east  to  west,  and  nine  miles  wide  : 
the  western  portion,  embracing  about  one  third  of  the  whole 
extent,  is  a  barren  waste ;  and  the  remaining  two  thirds  is 
mountainous,  in  some  places  rising  to  the  height  of  twenty- 
eight  hundred  feet,  with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  on  the  south  side,  which  has  a  most  favorable  exposure, 
and  is  highly  productive. — Oahu  lies  about  thirty  miles  north- 


360  GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SCENERY.  [1840. 

west  from  Molokai,  and,  both  politically  and  commercially,  is 
the  most  important  island  in  the  group.  It  is  forty-six  miles 
in  length,  and  twenty-three  in  breadth.  Like  Hawaii,  it 
rises  on  all  sides  from  the  ocean,  to  an  elevated  plain  in  the 
interior,  that  is  dotted  with  numerous  mountain  peaks,  none 
of  which,  however,  exceed  four  thousand  feet  in  height.  In- 
deed, the  general  character  of  the  surface  of  this  island  is 
level  in  comparison  with  the  other  islands,  and  a  very  good 
carriage  road  might  be  constructed  from  one  end  to  the  other 
without  much  difficulty. 

Kauai  is  between  seventy  and  eighty  miles  still  further  to 
the  north-west.  It  is  nearly  circular  in  shape ;  its  greatest 
length  being  thirty-three  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
twenty-eight.  Its  scenery  resembles  that  of  the  other  islands, 
but  is  more  delightfully  varied.  It  is  considerably  broken, 
and  has  mountains  towering  to  the  height  of  five  thousand 
feet.  The  climate  is  very  fine  ;  agriculture  is  here  in  a  most 
nourishing  state;  and  this,  in  connection  with  its  natural 
attractions  and  advantages,  has  rendered  it  a  favorite  place 
of  retreat  during  the  hot  summer  months. — Niihau,  sixteen 
miles  south-west  of  Kauai,  is  eighteen  miles  long,  from  north 
to  south,  and  seven  miles  wide.  It  is  much  lower  than  any 
of  the  other  principal  islands,  having  no  elevation  above  eight 
hundred  feet,  but  its  surface  is  quite  rocky  and  uneven.  It 
is  celebrated  chiefly  for  the  beautiful  mats  manufactured  by 
its  inhabitants,  and  is  likewise  said  to  be  a  fine  place  for 
making  salt. 

The  same  general  features,  in  respect  of  scenery,  charac- 
terize the  whole  group.  Coral  reefs  encircle  the  coasts,  with 
frequent  openings, — and  occasionally  they  wholly  disappear. 
In  some  places  the  shores  are  low,  and  this  is  most  commonly 
the  case  ;  but  in  others,  the  ocean  waves  are  dashed  against 
rocky  piles  of  lava,  and  tall  cliffs  of  basalt.  Belts  of  tropical 
vegetation,  of  the  most  exuberant  growth,  begirt  the  islands, 
just  inside  the  fringe  of  snowy  breakers ;  beyond  these  are 
strips  of  fresh  green  verdure, — plants,  and  shrubs,  and  vines, 
and  grasses,  all  mingled  confusedly  together, — which  creep 


1840.}  GEOLOGY.  361 

tip  the  slopes  of  the  hills  and  mountains  to  the  height  of  two 
thousand  feet ;  here  the  productions  of  a  new  climate  display 
their  manifold  beauties,  and  the  dark  foliage  of  the  cone- 
bearers,  and  other  trees  belonging  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
temperate  zone,  imbordcrs  the  loftiest  peaks,  up  to  the  eleva- 
tion of  six  thousand  feet ;  and  above  all,  stretch  upward  to 
the  region  of  eternal  frost,  the  magnificent  cones,  with  their 
fluted  sides  and  perforated  summits,  like  stupendous  monu- 
ments reared  by  the  art  of  man. 

Numerous  small  rivers  and  streams  have  their  sources  in 
the  mountainous  ridges,  and  carry  off  the  surplus  waters 
which  fall  during  the  frequent  iains,  to  irrigate  the  low  levels, 
and  add  freshness  and  beauty  to  the  diversified  landscapes 
through  which  they  wend  their  way,  or  to  mingle  again  with 
the  ocean.  Some  of  these  rivers,  or  brooks,  are  very  consider- 
able streams,  and  may  be  navigated  for  a  short  distance  in 
boats.  They  often  form  picturesque  falls  and  cascades, 
where  they  descend  from  the  elevated  plateaus  to  the  coast 
level ;  and  in  a  few  instances  their  utility  has  been  demon- 
strated by  the  employment  of  their  waters  in  propelling  ma- 
chinery. 

Evidences  of  the  volcanic  origin  and  character  of  this  group 
meet  the  eye  wherever  it  is  turned.  Wide  fields  and  plains 
of  lava,  regularly  piled  strata  of  volcanic  rock  and  cinders, 
and  vast  columnar  masses  of  basalt,  are  scattered  everywhere 
throughout  the  islands  ;  although  blocks  of  sandstone,  and 
compact  limestone  with  a  stratification  of  pebbles,  may  occa- 
sionally be  seen.  But  the  most  decisive  indications  of  the 
geological  formation,  as  well  as  the  most  prominent  features 
of  the  islands,  are  the  numerous  conical  craters,  and  the  lofty 
hills  of  scoriaceous  lava  evidently  poured  forth  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  during  some  volcanic  cataclysm.  Most 
of  these  craters  are  now  silent ;  their  quaquaversal  beds  of 
lava  no  longer  glow  with  fervent  heat ;  their  fires  are  slum- 
bering, perhaps  forever, — it  may  be,  to  gather  new  strength, 
and  break  out  once  more  with  redoubled  fury. 

The  only  active  volcanoes  are  those  of  Maun  a  Loa  and 

16 


362  kilauea.  [184a 

Kilauea,  on  the  island  of  Hawaii.  The  first,  which  has  been 
before  referred  to,  is  much  higher  than  the  other  ;  but  Kilauea 
is  by  far  the  most  striking  and  peculiar.  It  is  totally  unlike 
other  volcanoes,  and  exhibits  no  permanent  jets  of  fire,  or  flam- 
ing cones,  or  eruptions  of  heated  stones  ;  but  it  consists  of  a 
vast  depression,  or  basin, — on  the  flank  of  Mauna  Loa,  four 
thousand  feet  above  the  ocean,  and  about  twenty  miles  east  of 
the  main  volcano, — within  which  is  a  seething  cauldron  in  a 
constant  state  of  terrific  ebullition,  where  the  boiling  waves  of 
molten  lava  are  continually  surging  to  and  fro,  while  they  howl 
and  hiss  like  angry  demons.  This,  in  olden  time,  was  the  abode 
of  the  great  Pele,  the  principal  goddess  of  the  Hawaiian; 
and  it  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered,  that  the  pagan  should  have 
associated  his  chosen  deity  with  a  phenomenon  that  filled 
him  with  so  much  awe,  terror,  and  astonishment. 

It  is  not  far  from  one  thousand  feet,  from  the  crest  of  the 
overhanging  bank  down  to  the  surface  of  this  fiery  lake. 
The  crater  is  of  an  oval  figure,  and  is  three  and  a  half  miles 
long  and  two  and  a  half  miles  wide.  It  is  surrounded  by 
drifted  heaps  of  scoria,  and  massive  piles  of  lava,  among 
which  are  frequently  found  bundles  of  capillary  glass,  called 
"  Pete's  hair"  by  the  natives,  springing  from  the  crevices 
and  fissures,  and  waving  in  the  wind  like  long  threads  of  the 
softest  cotton.  An  occasional  aperture  from  which  the  hot 
steam  escapes, — now  quite  often  employed  in  cooking  food  by 
strangers  and  natives,  both  alike  indifferent  to  the  good 
pleasure  of  mistress  Pele, — breaks  the  surface  of  the  mountain. 
Vegetation  is  but  scanty.  A  few  ferns,  that  derive  their 
principal  sustenance  from  the  vapors  rising  from  the  lake  be- 
neath, take  root  in  the  crannies  amid  the  ledge  of  basaltic 
rocks  that  surrounds  the  crater  ;  and  in  their  rear  are  stunted 
shrubs,  and  tall  and  sickly  tufts  of  grass,  which  dot  the  sides 
of  the  mountain,  at  wide  intervals,  down  to  the  dark  line  of 
vegetation  that  encircles  its  base. 

Nearly  seven  hundred  feet  below  the  outer  bank  is  a  black 
ledge  of  indurated  lava,  to  which  the  mass  boiling  in  the  pool 
below  occasionally  rises,  and  having  lost  a  great  part  of  its 


1840.]  DESCRIPTION   OF   THE    CRATER.  363 

volume  by  an  eruption,  subsides  again  to  its  customary  limits. 
The  pool  is  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  long,  and  one  thousand 
feet  across.  It  is  dangerous  to  descend  from  the  black  ledge 
to  the  border  of  the  lake  itself,  although  it  has  been  done ;  for 
the  reason  that  the  thin  crust  of  lava,  formed  above  the  glow- 
ing furnace,  sometimes  gives  way.  The  descent  from  the 
outer  bank  to  the  black  ledge  is  comparatively  easy,  as  the 
declivity  is  very  gradual,  and  presents  few  obstructions.  The 
ground  beneath  is  coated  with  a  crust  of  vitreous  or  scoria- 
ceous  lava  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  thick.  Below  the 
ledge  there  are  many  beautiful  cones  and  jets  of  hardened  lava 
scattered  about  in  different  positions.  Suspended  over  the 
blazing  pool,  in  mid  air,  is  a  cloud  of  vapor,  by  day  assuming 
a  silvery  appearance,  and  by  night  resembling  a  sea  of  fire. 

The  pool  or  lake  undergoes  frequent  changes  on  its  sur- 
face. Besides  rising  and  falling,  as  has  been  mentioned,  some- 
times a  great  number  of  cones  start  up  from  the  midst  of  the 
liquid  mass,  and  like  miniature  volcanoes  eject  red-hot  stones, 
and  streams  of  smoke  and  flame ;  then  all  at  once  they  are 
silenced,  and  crumble  down  into  the  lake  from  which  they 
had.  risen,  while  its  fiery  waves  sweep  away  every  trace  of 
their  existence.  But  whatever  be  its  condition,  and  in  what- 
ever aspect  it  is  observed,  the  beholder  is  startled  by  the 
grandeur  and  sublimity  of  the  scene ;  and  the  unearthly 
sounds  that  meet  his  ear,  as  if  the  whole  brood  of  Cyclops 
were  thundering  at  their  subterranean  forges,  serve  to 
heighten  the  emotions  that  steal  upon  him.  "  The  fiercely 
whizzing  sound  of  gas  and  steam,"  says  Mr.  Bingham, 
"rushing  with  varying  force,  through  obstructed  apertures  in 
blowing  cones,  or  cooling  crusts  of  lava, — the  laboring,  wheez- 
ing, struggling  as  of  a  living  mountain,  breathing  fire  and 
smoke  and  sulphurous  gas  from  lurid  nostrils,  tossing  up 
molten  rocks  or  detached  portions  of  fluid  lava,  and  breaking 
up  vast  indurated  masses  with  varied  detonations, — all  im- 
pressively bade  us  stand  in  awe."* 

(2.)  When  the  Sandwich  Islands  were  first  discovered,  it 

*  Bingham's  Sandwich  Islands,  pp.  387,  388. 


364  population.  [1840 

was  computed   that  they  contained   at   least  two  hiv.idred 
thousand  inhabitants.     Subsequent  to  that  time  a  great  part 
of  the  population  fell  victims  to  the  bloody  and  devastating 
wars  waged  between  the  rival  tribes  and  factions ;  and  even 
after  peace  and  harmony  were  restored  by  the  benign  influ- 
ence of  Christianity,  who,  with  her  twin  sister  Civilization, 
dispensed  innumerable  blessings  throughout  the  group,  and 
awakened  new  hopes  and  aspirations  in  the  breasts  of  the 
illiterate  and  benighted  pagans,  other  causes  contributed  to 
produce  the  same  result — the  rapid  and  alarming  diminution 
of  the  native  population.     Foreign  diseases  and  vices  have 
been  introduced,  and  have  swept  away  their  thousands.     In- 
fanticide, and  the  abandonment  of  children,  have  been  almost 
done  away ;  but  in  their  stead,  there  has  been  a  marked  in- 
difference to  the  welfare  of  their  offspring  manifested  by  the 
natives  of  the  islands,  and  every  year  witnesses  the  death  of 
a  great  number  of  infants,  solely  from  the  inattention  and 
neglect  of  their  parents.*     Superadded  to  this  cause  of  the 
reduction  of  the  population,  is  the  somewhat  singular  fact, 
that  sterility,  occasioned  either  by  indulgence  in  pernicious 
habits  and  vices,  or  by  the  settled   gloom  and  melanchol) 
that  have  taken  possession  of  the  Sandwich  Islander,  is  un 
usually  common.     Both  these  causes  combined  must,  of  ne 
cessity,  lead  to  the  result  which  has  been  witnessed  her* 
among  any  people ;  if  the  species  is  not  reproduced  in  sufrj 
cient  numbers  to  supply  the  inroads  made  by  time,  in  th 
ordinary  course  of  nature,  utter  annihilation  will  be  the  ic 
evitable  consequence. 

In  1832,  the  population  of  the  group  was  about  one  hurl 
dred  and  thirty  thousand ;  in  1836,  it  had  dwindled  down  t* 
about  one  hundred  thousand ;  and  in  the  winter  of  1849,  i' 
was  supposed  not  to  exceed  eighty  thousand.  Nearly  ont 
half  of  the  whole  number  reside  on  Hawaii.  Ever  since  the 
first  settlement  of  the  missionaries  in  the  islands,  the  for. 
eign   population   has   been   steadily  increasing,  and    immi- 

*  Cases  of  abortion  are  not  rare  in  some  districts,  though  they  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  group. 


1840.]        PERSONAL  APPEARANCE   OF  THE  NATIVES.  365 

grants  are  now  annually  arriving  in  greater  or  less  numbers. 
But  the  additions  made  in  this  manner,  fail  to  make  good 
the  deficiencies  in  the  native  population,  about  one  sixth  of 
whom  die  every  year.  In  some  of  the  districts,  the  families 
of  the  ancient  chiefs  are  almost  extinct,  and  in  nearly  all 
they  are  much  less  numerous  than  they  formerly  were. 

The  foreign  population  of  the  group  is  composed  of  the 
most  heterogeneous  materials,  and  in  Honolulu  and  some  of 
the  other  towns  the  most'  striking  contrasts  are  exhibited. 
There  are  phlegmatic  Dutchmen,  beer-drinking  and  pipe-lov- 
ing Germans,  mercurial  Frenchmen,  conceited  and  self- 
opinionated  Englishmen  fresh  from  the  paradise  of  all  true 
Cockneys,  calculating  down-east  Yankees,  western  hoosiers, 
California  Indians,  greasy  Mexicans,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
in  this  hotchpot  of  humanity,  veritable  flat-nosed  and  sallow- 
faced  Chinamen  with  the  long  tails  and  singular  costume 
peculiar  to  the  natives  of  the  Celestial  Empire.* 

There  is  a  close  resemblance  between  the  natives  of  the 
Society  and  Sandwich  Islands.  Those  inhabiting  the  latter 
are  several  shades  darker  in  complexion  than  the  Tahitian, 
but  their  features  are  very  similar.  Their  color  is  a  brownish 
olive  ;  they  have  dark  hair,  expressive  and  intelligent  eyes,  and 
more  firm  and  muscular  limbs  than  the  natives  of  the  Society 
Islands, — resembling  more  nearly,  in  this  last  respect,  the 
people  of  the  Samoan  Group,  to  whom,  also,  they  appear  to 
be  related.  Both  sexes  of  Hawaiians  are  inclined  to  become 
corpulent  as  they  advance  in  life.  The  females  do  not  possess 
much  personal  beauty,  and  their  features  are  generally  coarse 

*  "  A  Bakery  has  been  established  here  [Honolulu]  by  '  Sam  &  Mow,'  bakers 
from  Canton,  where  bread,  cakes,  and  pies,  are  manufactured  in  every  variety, 
and  of  excellent  quality.  Their  advertisement  contains  a  classical  allusion  in 
the  last  line,  which  will  not  be  readily  perceived,  except  by  those  who  are  aware 
of  the  arrogance  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 

'  Good  people  all,  come  near  and  buy 
Of  Sam  and  Mow,  good  cake  and  pie, 
Bread,  hard  or  soft,  for  land  or  sea, 
'  Celestial'  made ;  come  buy  of  we.'  " 

Olmsted's  Incidents  of  a  Whaling  Voyage,  p.  213. 


366  CHARACTERISTIC    TRAITS.  [1840. 

and  disagreeable.  Between  the  two  classes  of  the  population 
— the  chiefs  and  the  kanakas,  or  common  people — there  is 
the  same  striking  difference  observed  throughout  Polynesia, 
although  each  has  some  characteristics  in  common  with  the 
other.  The  former  are  more  active  in  their  movements  than 
the  latter  ;  they  have  lighter  complexions  and  more  harmo- 
nious features ;  and  they  are  more  graceful  and  stately  in 
their  gait,  and  less  embarrassed  in  their  address. 

Equally  with  the  Society  Islanders,  the  Hawaiians  are 
naturally  indolent.  This  predisposition  has  been  in  "some 
measure  overcome  by  the  missionaries,  and  the  necessity  of 
cultivating  the  soil  to  supply  their  wants  has  rendered  them 
more  energetic  and  industrious.  But  they  are  far  from  be- 
ing provident,  nor  do  they  show  any  particular  desire  to  ac- 
cumulate property.  A  sufficiency  of  food  and  clothing,  usu- 
ally limited  within  the  narrowest  bounds,  is  all  they  care  to 
possess.  They  are  not  as  sensual  as  the  Tahitian,  but  licen- 
tiousness is  still  quite  prevalent,  and  excess  in  eating  and 
drinking  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  that  are  accelerating  the 
steady  decrease  of  the  population.  They  are  tolerably 
honest  and  hospitable  ;  possess  a  respectable  share  of  in- 
telligence ;  and  are  quick  to  learn,  and  apt  at  imitation 
They  are  daring  and  courageous,  and  completely  reckless  of 
life ;  yet  they  do  not  possess  the  frankness  and  generosity 
which  often  accompany  those  traits.  On  the  contrary,  they 
are  extremely  selfish,  and  have  very  little  natural  affection ; 
there  are  striking  exceptions,  of  course,  to  this  general  rule, 
but  infidelity,  infanticide,  and  the  abandonment  of  children, 
are  not  looked  upon  with  that  abhorrence  which  they  natu- 
rally excite  in  a  well-educated  and  right-feeling  community. 
Parents,  and  mothers  in  particular,  are  exceedingly  neglect- 
ful of  their  offspring  ;  the  pleasurable  cares  and  anxieties  of 
true  affection,  for  them  have  no  alleviation  ;  and  when  they 
are  able  to  put  their  children  out  to  nurse,  which  is  frequently 
done,  they  feel  relieved  of  a  most  grievous  burden. 

Of  national  pride,  the  Sandwich  Islander  cannot   boast. 
Whether,  since  he  has  become  partially  enlightened  and  civil- 


1840  ]  dress,  367 

ized,  the  comparison  he  has  been  able  to  draw,  between  his 
own  and  other  countries,  has  created  an  unnatural  loathing 
towards  his  race,  or  that  memory  still  clings  with  regret  to 
the  customs  and  associations  of  former  days, — certain  it  is, 
that  despair  has  cast  its  dark  shadow  over  his  countenance, 
and,  like  the  vulture,  is  forever  gnawing  at  his  heart.  Some 
few  there  are,  who,  not  indifferent  to  the  rapid  dwindling 
away  of  their  people,  look  forward  to  the  future  in  trustful 
hope  and  confidence,  and  are  zealous  in  urging  forward  those 
reforms  and  improvements  that  afford  the  promise  of  better- 
ing their  condition  and  checking  the  progress  of  decay  ;  but 
the  great  mass,  when  not  under  the  influence  of  the  tempo- 
rary excitement  produced  by  amusement  or  intoxication,  are 
sorrowful,  moody,  and  melancholy.  It  is  painful  to  contem- 
plate the  sad  expression  of  the  common  people,  when  at  work, 
or  when  resting  from  their  labors ;  and  when  those  possessing 
greater  intelligence,  and  occupying  a  higher  sphere,  reflect 
on  the  alarming  decrease  of  the  native  population,  their 
thoughts  are  not  pleasant  ones.  Civilization  seems  to  them 
to  have  been  a  bane  as  well  as  a  blessing ;  they  have  been 
redeemed  from  the  darkness  of  heathenism,  but  the  full  light 
of  day  has  overpowered  them,  and  like  Semele,  they  are 
perishing  in  the  embraces  which  they  courted. 

European,  or  peculiar  national  costumes,  prevail  among  the 
foreign  residents.  The  greatest  incongruity  is  exhibited  in  the 
apparel  of  the  natives,  especially  in  the  seaport  towns.  The 
better  classes  often  appear  well  clothed,  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  whites ;  the  women  in  flaring  chip  bonnets,  and  silk 
or  satin  dresses,  though  sometimes  accompanied  with  the 
coarsest  brogans  drawn  over  a  stockingless  foot ;  and  the  men 
in  broad-leafed  straw  hats,  and  nankeen  jackets  and  trowsers. 
A  great  effort  has  been  made  by  the  missionaries  to  do  away 
the  primitive  style  of  dress  altogether,  but  they  have  not  been 
entirely  successful.  The  common  people,  or  kanakas,  still 
adhere  to  the  maro,  and  both  males  and  females  can  with  dif- 
ficulty be  persuaded  to  put  on  anything  else  when  they  are 
At  work.     Sometimes,  on  Sundays  or  holidays,  the  former 


368  ORNAMENTS.  [1840 

conceal  their  nether  limbs  in  a  pair  of  pantaloons,  if  fortunate 
enough  to  possess  them  ;  and  provided  the  state  of  their  ward- 
robes permits  the  indulgence,  a  coarse  cotton  shirt  is  added 
On  a  week  day,  a  native  may  often  be  seen  clad  simply  in  a 
shirt,  or  sailor's  round  jacket,  with  the  indispensable  maro. 
Parens  are  likewise  occasionally  worn  by  both  sexes.  Since 
the  missionaries  have  established  themselves  on  the  island®, 
they  have  persuaded  the  females,  at  least  when  they  appear 
in  public,  to  put  on  long  gowns,  like  the  loose  morning  dresses 
of  our  own  American  ladies.  These  are  confined  at  the  waist, 
if  at  all,  by  embroidered,  or  party-colored  tapa  scarfs  or 
shawls. 

Articles  of  apparel  made  of  tapa,  are,  however,  much  less 
common  now  than  they  formerly  were.  Mantles,  called 
kapas  or  kiheis,  are  still  made  of  this  material ;  and  there 
are  girdles,  or  malos,  also,  of  the  same  fabric.  The  mantle 
is  passed  over  the  right  shoulder  of  the  wearer,  and  knotted 
under  the  opposite  arm.  Besides  the  tapa  shawls,  bright 
yellow  or  scarlet  ones,  of  foreign  manufacture,  are  frequently 
displayed. 

The  king,  Kamameha  III,  usually  wears  the  European 
dress, — consisting  of  a  blue  broadcloth  coat,  and  white  vest 
and  pantaloons  ;  but  for  great  occasions  he  has  robes  of  state, 
made  of  tapa,  and  adorned  with  rich  yellow  or  scarlet  feath- 
ers— the  latter  obtained  from  the  beautiful  mclithreptes  Pa- 
cifica.  His  royal  spouse  ordinarily  appears  in  public  with 
an  embroidered  shawl  of  scarlet  crape  thrown  over  her  silk 
or  satin  dress  ;  and  when  still  greater  state  is  desired,  she, 
too,  displays  a  gorgeous  robe,  showily,  if  not  tastefully  trimmed 
with  feathers.  Costly  tiaras  of  yellow  or  scarlet  feathers  are, 
likewise,  indicative  of  high  rank.  The  chiefs  wear  helmets 
made  of  linen  network,  with  brilliant  feathers  inserted,  and 
the  chiefesses,  as  they  are  called,  pretty  wreaths,  either  of 
feathers  or  flowers,  or,  sometimes,  of  both  intermingled. 

Ornaments  are  not  very  common.  Amulets  of  bones  or 
ivory  shaped  like  a  hook,  or  carved  after  some  other  pattern, 
or  beautiful  shells,  are  often  seen.     Necklaces  of  braided 


1840.]  SPORTING    IN    THE    SURF.  369 

hair,  or  of  the  bright  red  fruit  of  the  pandanus,  sometimes 
tinged  with  orange  color,  and  strung  by  the  women  on  a 
cord,  are  worn  about  their  necks.  Wreaths  of  flowers 
were  formerly  much  worn  by  the  females  around  their 
heads,  but  these  have  been  interdicted  by  the  missiona- 
ries, and  are,  therefore,  pretty  generally  discarded.  Very 
little  attention  is  paid  by  either  sex  to  the  hair  :  the  males, 
among  the  higher  classes,  wear  it  cropped  short,  and  the 
females  gather  it  up  in  dark  masses  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
Tattooing  is  almost  abandoned,  though  now  and  then  a  na- 
tive damsel  will  be  seen,  with  her  dusky  legs  and  ankles  pret- 
tily ornamented,  "  as  a  sort  of  substitute  for  open-work  he 
siery."  The  kanakas  commonly  go  barefooted,  though 
when  travelling  over  the  rough  paths  in  the  interior,  they  put 
on  sandals  made  of  ti  leaves. 

Ancient  manners  and  customs  are  nearly  done  away,  and 
the  natives  are  gradually  accustoming  themselves  to  the 
habits  of  the  whites.  Some  few  of  their  amusements — the 
relics  of  former  times — are  still  preserved.  They  are  an  am- 
phibious race,  and  being  totally  fearless  of  danger,  will  spend 
hours  at  a  time,  disporting  themselves,  in  the  most  furious 
surf.  In  bathing,  each  person  is  usually  provided  with  a 
surf-board.  This  is  from  six  to  nine  feet  long,  and  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  wide.  It  is  from  one  to  two  inches 
thick  in  the  centre,  but  quite  thin  at  the  edges.  Throwing 
himself  flatwise  upon  this,  the  bather  plunges  forward  from 
the  shore  on  the  top  of  the  recoiling  surf.  When  he  meets  a 
roller  he  dives  under  it,  and  emerging  on  the  other  side,  darts 
ahead  once  more  with  great  rapidity,  till  he  gains  the  outer 
line  of  breakers,  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  distant  from 
the  shore.  Now  watching  the  opportunity,  he  mounts  one 
of  the  loftiest  waves,  balancing  himself  on  his  board  on  his 
hands  and  knees,  or  extended  thereupon  at  full  length.  With 
the  speed  of  a  maddened  courser  he  darts  towards  the  shore, 
his  shout  of  triumph  ringing  loud  and  clear,  and  distinctly 
heard  above  the  roar  of  the  surge,  if  he  is  so  fortunate  as  to 
distance   his  companions.     Accidents  sometimes  occur,  but 

lf>* 


370  AMUSEMENTS.  [1840. 

if  the  bather  is  dismounted  from  his  board,  or  thrown  from 
the  wave  on  which  he  has  placed  himself,  nothing  daunted 
by  the  failure,  he  attempts  to  reach  another,  and  though  still 
unsuccessful,  will  persevere  till  he  is  obliged  to  return  to  the 
beach,  at  which  he  often  arrives  panting  for  breath  and  com- 
pletely exhausted  by  his  efforts.  This  is  esteemed  glorious 
sport  by  all  ages  and  classes,  and  both  sexes  engage  in  it  in- 
discriminately, with  nothing  on  but  the  maro. 

Lascivious  dances,  or  hulas,  are  not  uncommon,  though 
the  civil  authorities  and  missionaries  make  every  exertion  to 
prevent  such  displays.  Their  music  consists  principally  of 
drumming  on  hollow  vessels  or  calabashes,  or  on  the  native 
drum,  which  is  made  of  a  hollow  log,  with  a  piece  of 
shark  skin  drawn  over  the  end.  Foreign  instruments  have 
been  introduced,  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  the  violin,  the 
pipe,  and  the  trumpet,  may  now  frequently  be  heard  in  the 
fashionable  assemblies  held  in  the  drinking  houses  of  Hono- 
lulu. 

Riding  on  horseback  is  as  much  of  a  passion  with  the 
Sandwich  Islander,  as  with  the  sailor  when  ashore.  All 
classes  and  conditions  look  upon  this  as  their  favorite  pas- 
time. They  will  mount  without  saddle  or  stirrups — the  wo- 
men sitting  astride  like  the  Peruvian  senorita ;  anything 
serves  for  a  bridle  ;  and  once  fairly  seated,  away  they  go  with 
a  loud  hurrah,  dashing  over  hill  and  plain  at  a  furious  rate. 

All  who  are  not  restrained  by  their  religious  principles,  or 
through  fear  of  the  missionaries,  are  much  addicted  to  gam- 
bling, either  with  cards  or  dice,  in  the  use  of  which  many  of 
the  natives  have  become  very  expert.  They  have,  also,  a 
kind  of  thimble-rigging  among  them,  which  is  called  buhe- 
nehene :  in  this  game  a  stone  is  hidden  underneath  various 
colored  piles  of  tapa  by  one  of  the  party,  and  the  others  guess 
where  it  is  concealed,  each  player  pointing  to  the  pile  where 
he  supposes  it  to  be  hidden  with  a  short  stick.  Throwing 
quoits,  too,  is  much  practiced ;  and  there  is  another  game, 
called  maiku,  which  consists  in  hurling  stones  in  a  narrow 
trench  dug  in  the  ground,  sometimes  a  mile  in  length, — he 


1840.]  hoolua.  371 

who  can  throw  the  furthest  being  considered  the  best  player. 
This  last  amusement,  however,  is  giving  place  to  bowling, 
alleys  for  which  have  been  erected  at  Honolulu,  and  some  of 
the  other  seaports. 

The  young  people  amuse  themselves  at  a  sort  of  see-saw, 
not  dissimilar  to  that  seen  among  us.  A  long  pole  is  ex- 
tended across  a  forked  stick,  planted  upright  in  the  ground, 
on  either  end  of  which  two  or  three  of  the  company  place 
themselves,  and  the  great  object  is  to  see  which  party  can 
throw  the  other  the  soonest. 

One  of  the  ancient  sports  was  hoolua,  or  sliding  down  hill ; 
and  many  of  the  natives  are  still  as  much  attached  to  their 
mode  of  "  coasting,"  as  was  the  young  Albanian  in  days  of 
yore.  The  Sandwich  Islander,  of  course,  practiced  his  rec- 
reation without  the  accessory  of  snow  or  iee ;  but,  in  its 
stead,  he  placed  a  thin  layer  of  grass  along  a  broad  smooth 
furrow  made  down  some  steep  declivity,  and  prolonged  for  a 
short  distance  across  the  level  ground  at  its  foot.  Light  built, 
and  long,  and  narrow  sleds,  were  used  in  this  sport.  Grasp- 
ing his  vehicle  in  his  hands,  the  player  planted  himself  a  few 
paces  in  rear  of  the  starting  point  :  then  suddenly  darting 
forward  at  his  utmost  speed,  as  he  reached  the  brow  of  the 
slope  he  threw  his  sled  forward,  sprang  headlong  upon  it, 
and  darted  down  the  hill.  This  was  once  a  very  common 
mode  of  gambling — the  person  who  went  the  greatest  dis- 
tance the  most  frequently  being  considered  the  winner  of  the 
game. 

When  the  missionaries  first  arrived  in  the  islands,  the 
ancient  custom  of  taboo,  or  tabu,  was  the  law  of  the  land. 
It  was  the  instrument  of  gross  oppression  and  wrong ;  it  had 
reduced  the  common  people  to  a  state  of  abject  servitude  ;  it 
encouraged  the  gratification  of  every  whim  and  caprice  on 
the  part  of  the  kings  or  chiefs  ;  it  entered  the  lowest  hut,  and 
restrained  its  occupant  from  the  gratification  of  his  simplest 
wishes,  as  well  as  from  indulgence  in  connubial  pleasures ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  it  forbade  the  wife  from  eating  with 
her  husband,  in  order  that  he  might  enjoy  his  amours  with 


372  MARRIAGE.  [1840. 

other  objects  of  his  desire,  unabashed  by  her  presence.  The 
marriage  relation  was  scarcely  acknowledged,  and  where  the 
tie  existed  at  all,  it  was  regarded  but  as  a  rope  of  sand. 
Polygamy,  or  concubinage  of  the  grossest  character,  was 
common  among  the  higher  chiefs  throughout  the  group.  Al- 
most the  first  changes  brought  about  by  the  missionaries 
affected  the  relations  between  the  two  sexes,  and  proceeding 
from  one  step  to  another,  they  finally  caused  it  to  be  enacted, 
that  marriages  should  not  be  solemnized  between  parties  who* 
were  unable  to  read.  It  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  this 
law  is  not  too  severe,  and  by  its  great  stringency  often  lead 
to  illicit  connections.  It  is  very  natural  that  it  should  have 
that  tendency  J  and  it  is  certainly  no  reproach  to  the  mission- 
ary, that  his  theory,  however  correct  in  itself,  does  not  always 
prove  beneficial  in  practice.  The  law  has  been  hitherto  en- 
forced, however,  pretty  strictly  ;  and  adultery  and  fornication 
are  punished  with  considerable  severity.  Persons  found  guilty 
of  these  offences  are  imprisoned  in  the  forts  or  otherwise  con- 
fined, and  put  at  hard  labor — the  women  being  compelled  to> 
work  with  wreaths  of  flowers  about  their  heads. 

Most  of  the  prisoners  are  employed  on  the  roads,  and  in 
quarrying  coral  stone  from  the  reefs  for  governmental  pur- 
poses. There  are  particular  days,  also,  called  pahau  days^ 
on  which  the  kanakas  are  obliged  to  work  for  the  govern- 
ment. This  class  of  the  population  have  received  altogether 
more  credit  than  they  really  deserved  for  their  industry.  It 
is  but  their  humiliating  and  debased  condition,  nevertheless, 
that  produces  the  apathy,  indifference,  and  indolence,  which 
they  show  in  every  feature  of  their  countenances,  when  col- 
lected together  in  groups,  or  arranged  in  long  files,  in  the 
streets  of  Honolulu,  and  sitting  squatted  upon  their  hams — 
their  favorite  attitude — perfectly  listless  and  immovable,  until 
the  voice  of  the  overseer  or  director  arouses  them  for  the  re- 
sumption of  their  task.  Mere  machines,  endowed  but  with 
life,  they  have  nothing  to  live  or  to  hope  for,  except  the  grati- 
fication of  the  animal  passions  and  appetites.  No  system  of 
society  can  be  sound,  or  permanently  prosperous,  that  tolerates 


1840.]  PREPARING    TARO.  373 

such  debasement  of  its  members,  and  here  we  have  another 
important  cause  of  the  degeneracy  and  decay  of  the  Hawaiian 
race. 

Fish  and  taro  are  the  chief  articles  of  food  among  the 
natives.  One  of  them  will  make  a  meal  from  a  small  fish, 
either  dried  or  roasted,  and  a  little  poe.  The  latter  is  com- 
monly eaten  by  thrusting  the  finger  into  the  vessel  containing 
it,  and  turning  it  round  until  a  sufficient  quantity  is  gathered, 
when  it  is  carried  to  the  mouth,  and  the  paste  sucked  off 
very  much  as  American  youngsters  eat  treacle.  Pigs  and 
poultry,  and  most  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  common  in  tho 
tropics,  or  the  lower  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  are  more  or 
less  eaten  by  all  classes  of  natives.  Their  mode  of  cooking 
.  is  after  the  true  Polynesian  fashion  ;  the  articles  being  placed 
in  a  hollow,  or  pit,  dug  in  the  earth  and  lined  with  heated 
stones.  The  taro  is  converted  into  poe  in  this  way  :  the 
root  is  baked  in  the  ground,  in  the  manner  above  mentioned, 
till  it  becomes  dry  and  mealy,  when  it  is  mixed  with  a  little 
water,  and  beaten  with  a  smooth  stone,  or  pestle,  until  it  has 
the  consistence  of  bookbinder's  paste  ;  it  is  now  set  aside  for 
twenty-four  hours,  at  the  expiration  of  which  it  has  a  slightly 
acidulous,  but  agreeable  taste,  and  is  fit  for  use.  It  is  also 
made  in  a  harder  state,  for  sea  voyages  or  long  journeys  by 
land.  At  such  times,  jerked  beef,  prepared  from  the  flesh  of 
the  wild  cattle  that  roam  at  large  through  the  pasture  grounds 
in  the  interior  of  the  larger  islands,  is  used  instead  of  fish. 

All  sexes  and  classes  are  much  addicted  to  smoking,  and 
even  the  poorest  kanaka  carries  his  short  pipe,  with  a  quan- 
tity of  tobacco,  wherever  he  goes.  At  night,  too,  the  natives 
will  frequently  get  up,  light  their  pipes,  take  a  few  puffs, 
and  then  lie  down  again  for  another  nap.  When  they  smoke 
they  often  blow  the  vapor  down  through  their  nostrils. 

Frequent  bathing  is  practiced  by  the  Sandwich  Islanders, 
and  they  are  tolerably  cleanly  in  their  habits.  When  a  per- 
son is  fatigued,  they  have  a  practice  of  rubbing  and  knead- 
ing him,  called  lomi-lomi,  which  is  quite  refreshing. 

Whenever  any  one  dies,  a  great  outcry  is  made  ;  and  the 


374  ARRIVAL    OP    THE    MISSIONARIES.  [1840. 

relatives  lament  the  loss  they  have  sustained,  by  wailing  for 
several  days  and  nights  in  succession  over  the  corpse  of  the 
deceased.  The  most  doleful  cries  are  uttered  at  these  wakes, 
and  should  one  of  the  royal  family  be  the  object  of  their  lam- 
entations, the  sad  auwe  is  echoed  from  every  town  and  ham- 
let throughout  the  group  by  a  whole  nation  of  mourners.  Joy 
at  the  meeting  of  friends  after  a  long  separation  is  expressed 
in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  They  take  each  other  by 
the  hand,  rub  their  noses  together,  and  at  the  same  time  utter 
the  word  aloha,  in  a  low  wailing  tone. 

(3.)  When  these  islands  were  first  discovered  by  Cook, 
they  were  governed  by  different  chiefs  or  sovereigns,  but 
after  a  series  of  long  and  bloody  wars,  they  were  reduced  by 
the  great  Kamameha,  the  founder  of  the  present  dynasty, 
under  one  general  head.  He  was  succeeded  in  1819  by  his 
son  Kamameha  II,  under  whose  auspices  taboo  was  abol- 
ished ;  the  accustomed  sacrifices  were  withheld  from  the 
gods,  or  akuas ;  and  pleasure,  licentiousness,  and  intemper- 
ance, engrossed  the  time,  and  occupied  the  thoughts,  of  the 
whole  people.  Matters  were  in  this  condition  when  the  first 
missionaries,  sent  out  by  the  American  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions, .  arrived  at  the  islands,  in  March,  1820.  They 
were  kindly,  if  not  cordially  received,  and  permitted  at  once 
to  enter  upon  their  labors.  Though,  like  others  of  the  same 
class,  they  seem  to  have  long  entertained  the  hope  of  con- 
verting the  Hawaiian  Islands  into  a  real,  and  not  visionary 
Utopia,  their  efforts  have,  nevertheless,  been  far  more  practi- 
cally directed,  than  those  of  missionaries  generally  in  the 
Polynesian  groups.  Well  knowing  that  idleness  was  the  fruit- 
ful parent  of  irreligion  and  vice,  they  commenced  instructing 
the  natives  in  the  useful  arts,  and  endeavored  to  create  in- 
centives to  the  prosecution  of  industrial  pursuits.  In  procur- 
ing the  abolition,  however,  as  far  as  was  possible,  of  the  an- 
cient customs  and  amusements  of  the  people,  without  sub- 
stituting something  of  a  similar  character  in  their  stead,  they 
have,  perhaps,  committed  an  irreparable  error  ;  but  if  it  be 
such,  the  motives  that  animated  them  have  been  pure  and 


1840.]  ERRORS    COMMITTED.  375 

noble.  He  who  passes,  by  a  sudden  transition,  from  the 
darkness  of  slavery  to  the  full  light  of  liberty,  may  remain  a 
freeman,  but  he  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  a  ruffian ;  instan- 
taneous changes  can  never  be  made  with  safety,  especially 
among  an  uneducated  people ;  and  if  the  recreations  and  in- 
dulgences to  which  they  have  been  long  accustomed,  are  de- 
nied, without  a  suitable  and  gradual  preparation  for  so  great 
an  innovation,  it  is  but  natural  that  they  should  either  revolt 
against  the  authority  enforcing  these  restrictions,  or  sink  into 
a  melancholy  lethargy  from  which  it  may  be  impossible  to 
arouse  them. 

The  last  is  the  present  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  A  noble  work  was  attempted  by  the  mis- 
sionaries, and  they  have,  in  reality,  accomplished  an  untold 
amount  of  good.  But  they  aimed  too  high — their  error  was 
one  into  which  mere  schoolmen  were  very  liable  to  fall ;  they 
set  up  the  standard  of  perfection,  and  acted  upon  the  suppo- 
sition that  they  could  bar  the  doors,  and  keep  vice  and  temp- 
tation away  from  the  natives,  and  at  the  same  time  render 
them  a  happy,  industrious,  and  contented  people.  Amuse- 
ments and  pastimes,  sports  and  recreations,  the  song  and  the 
dance,  were  abolished  ;  and  the  wreath  of  flowers,  to  which 
God  himself  had  given  beauty  and  freshness,  was  made  the 
emblem  of  shame.  For  these  were  substituted  the  plain  and 
simple  mode  of  worship  and  of  life  so  well  adapted  to  the 
Puritan  character,  but  here  requiring  some  modification  to 
render  it  less  repulsive.  Liberty  and  enjoyment  were  to  be 
instantly  exchanged  for  a  rigid  sobriety  and  sedateness.  What 
could  be  the  result  of  these  errors,  but  that  which  we  now 
witness — one  half  of  the  nation  abandoned  to  intemperance 
and  excess,  and  the  other  half  struggling  almost  hopelessly 
against  the  melancholy  and  gloom  that  have  overshadowed 
their  hearts  ?* 

*  Of  late  years,  a  powerful  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  into  the  islands.  It  is  not  denied  that  the  natives  have  been 
much  struck  by  the  splendid  shows  and  attractive  worship  of  that  church ;  and 
there  is  a  moral  in  this  fact,  of  vital  importance  to  the  missionary. 


376  ACKNOWLEDGMENT    OF    THE    SABBATH.  [1840. 

Doubtful  as  is  the  prospect  for  the  future,  there  may  still 
be  a  remedy,  and  the  missionary  may  yet  be  spared  the  pain 
which  he  certainly  must  feel,  when  he  reflects  that  he  has 
aided  in  christianizing  a  people,  only  to  fit  them  for  their 
burial.  Upon  the  present  generation,  but  little  impression 
can  be  made ;  yet,  by  providing  social,  and  strictly  moral 
amusements,  for  the  young,  by  banishing  sadness  from  their 
countenances,  and  substituting  the  light  and  life  and  joy  , 
springing  from  happy  and  contented  hearts,  much  good  may 
be  effected.  The  encouragement  of  intermarriages  with  for- 
eigners, for  the  improvement  of  the  race,  may  also  be  bene- 
ficial. But,  above  all,  it  is  necessary,  that  the  practical, 
though  not  nominal,  union  of  church  and  state,  should  be 
absolutely  dissolved.  The  missionaries  may  then  confine 
themselves  to  their  appropriate  sphere,  and  leave  politics  and 
legislation,  where  none  of  the  great  principles  of  the  christian 
religion  are  involved,  to  those  who  are  responsible  for  the  civil 
administration  of  the  government.* 

For  some  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries  their 
progress  was  quite  slow ;  but  in  1822  they  established  a  print- 
ing press,  and  commenced  the  publication  of  the  bible  and 
such  tracts  as  were  calculated  to  do  good  among  the  heathen. 
In  1823,  the  government  publicly  acknowledged  the  christian 
sabbath,  and  required  all  ordinary  business  and  sports  to  be 
suspended  on  that  day.  In  1824,  Kamameha  II.  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  Kamameha  III.  The  latter  being  but 
a  mere  lad,  at  the  time  of  his  accession  to  the  throne,  the 
government  was  administered  by  Kaahumanu,  one  of  the 
wives  of  his  father,  as  regent,  during  the  first  eight  years  of 
his  reign.  Many  important  and  valuable  reforms  were  intro- 
duced during  her  regency,  and  when  the  youthful  monarch 
assumed  the  reins  of  government,  in  1832,  he  continued  the 

*  The  Rev.  Mr.  Bingham,  in  his  "  Residence  in  the  Sandwich  Islands" — a 
work  from  which  I  have  obtained  much  valuable  information — insists  (p.  278 
et  seq.)  that  the  charge,  or  assertion,  of  a  union  of  church  and  state  in  the 
Hawaiian  Group,  is  utterly  erroneous.  In  theory,  this  is  doubtless  so  ;  but  it  is 
scarcely  possible  for  an  unprejudiced  reader  to  examine  his  book,  without  com- 
ing to  the  conclusion  that  in  practice  it  is  directly  the  reverse. 


1840.]  WRITTEN   CONSTITUTION    ADOPTED.  377 

good  work  which  had  been  commenced.  The  repeated 
strifes  between  the  foreign  residents,  and  particularly  between 
the  agents  of  France  and  Great  Britain,  to  obtain  a  control- 
ling ascendency  in  the  islands,  operated  very  unfavorably,  both 
to  the  missionary  cause,  and  to  the  improvement  of  the  social 
and  political  condition  of  the  people. 

At  length,  in  October,  1840,  a  written  constitution,  modelled 
in  many  of  its  features  after  those  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  was  adopted  by  the  kings  and  chiefs,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  missionaries,  and  publicly  promul- 
gated. This  constitution  contains  the  following  declaration 
of  rights,  which,  while  acknowledging  the  divine  authority, 
seems  to  afford  an  ample  guaranty  of  protection  to  the  rights 
and  interests  of  the  common  people  : 

"  God  has  made  of  one  blood  all  the  nations  of  men,  that 
they  might  alike  dwell  upon  the  earth  in  peace  and  prosperity. 
And  he  has  given  certain  equal  rights  to  all  people  and  all 
chiefs  of  all  countries.  These  are  the  rights  or  gifts  which 
he  has  granted  to  every  man  and  chief  of  correct  deportment, 
— life,  the  members  of  the  body,  freedom  in  dwelling  and  act- 
ing, and  the  rightful  products  of  his  hands  and  mind  :  but 
not  those  things  which  are  inhibited  by  the  laws. 

"  From  God  also  are  the  office  of  rulers  and  the  reign  of 
chief  magistrates  for  protection  ;  but  in  enacting  the  laws  of 
the  land,  it  is  not  right  to  make  a  law  protecting  the  magis- 
trate only  and  not  subjects ;  neither  is  it  proper  to  establish 
laws  for  enriching  chiefs  only,  without  benefiting  the  people, 
and  hereafter  no  law  shall  be  established  in  opposition  to  the 
above  declarations ;  neither  shall  taxes,  servitude,  nor  labor, 
be  exacted,  without  law,  of  any  man,  in  a  manner  at  variance 
with  those  principles." 

Under  the  Hawaiian  constitution,  the  government  is  in  the 
nature  of  a  limited  monarchy.  The  sovereignty  is  declared 
to  exist,  forever,  in  Kamameha  III,  and  his  heirs,  to  be  des- 
ignated by  him  and  the  chiefs  during  his  life-time,  or,  in  de- 
fault thereof,  by  the  nobles  and  representatives.  A  premier, 
or  prime  minister,  appointed  by  the  king,  is  associated  with 


378  OPERATION    OP   THE    GOVERNMENT.  [1840. 

him  in  the  executive  administration.  Lands  cannot  be 
alienated  without  the  consent  of  the  king,  and  where  there 
are  no  persons  to  inherit  real  estate,  it  reverts  to  him.  No 
law,  at  variance  with  the  word  of  God,  can  be  enacted ;  and 
no  man  can  be  punished  without  due  trial  and  conviction. 
Representatives  are  elected  by  the  people  to  a  national  legis- 
lature, or  parliament ;  and  there  is  also  a  public  council,  the 
members  of  which  are  the  chiefs.  No  law  can  be  enacted 
without  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  representatives  and 
counsellors,  respectively.  The  king  appoints  four  governors 
under  him,— one  for  Hawaii,  one  for  Maui  and  the  adjacent 
isles,  one  for  Oahu,  and  one  for  Kauai  and  the  adjacent  isles. 
The  supreme  court  consists  of  six  judges,  four  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  elected  representatives,  and  the  other  two  are 
the  king,  who  is  the  chief  judge,  and  his  premier.  Subordi- 
nate judges  are  appointed  by  the  governors.  Tax-officers  re- 
ceive their  commissions  and  authority  from  the  monarch  and 
premier. 

After  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  a  new  code  of  laws 
was  established,  under  which  strangers,  as  well  as  residents 
and  natives,  are  amply  protected  in  their  persons  and  prop- 
erty. Indeed,  none  of  the  other  groups  in  Polynesia,  afford 
as  great  security  in  this  respect.  The  authorities,  in  the 
main,  are  very  impartial ;  and  an  excellent  police  has  been 
organized.  Whenever  a  vessel  is  landing  her  cargo  at  Hono- 
lulu, two  or  three  constables,  who  carry  canes  as  the  badges 
of  their  authority,  are  posted  along  the  wharfs,  to  keep  off 
all  intruders.  The  intrigues  of  foreign  agents  have  occasion- 
ally disquieted  the  country,  but  as  its  independence  has  been 
guaranteed  by  France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States, 
there  can  be  no  immediate  danger  of  an  overthrow  of  the  ex- 
isting government.  Should  the  native  population  ultimately 
dwindle  away  altogether,  and  the  foreign  residents  be  left  in 
the  occupancy  of  the  islands,  although  they  may  not  seek  any 
more  intimate  connection  with  the  United  States,  the  tone 
of  the  government,  and  the  national  character,  will  be  decid- 
edly American. 


1840.]  SCENERY   OP   THE    ISLANDS.  379 

Taxes,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  are  paid,  for  the  most  part, 
in  kind.  There  is  also  a  land  tax  occasionally  imposed,  when 
the  exigencies  of  the  state  require  it.  At  one  time  the  poll 
tax  was  very  heavy  on  fathers  of  families  ;  but  latterly  this 
has  been  changed,  ana  encouragement  has  been  given  to  rais- 
ing children,  by  providing  that  where  a  man  has  a  certain 
number,  he  shall  be  exempt  from  paying  taxes. 

Public  and  charity  schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  common  people,  are  located  all  over  the  islands  ; 
and  there  are  higher  seminaries  for  the  education  of  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  chiefs — for  the  males  at  Lahainaluna,  and 
for  the  females  at  Wailuku,  on  the  island  of  Maui.  The  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  is  strictly  enforced  by  the  authori- 
ties, and  all  offences  and  misdemeanors  are  punished  with 
great  promptitude.  There  are  upwards  of  twenty  churches 
in  the  group,  and  full  one  third  of  the  native  population  are 
church  members. 

Two  weekly  newspapers  have  been  established  at  Honolulu, 
and  have  a  pretty  extensive  circulation.  Most  of  the  chiefs, 
and  the  principal  members  of  the  legislature,  are  men  of  very 
good  education,  and  possess  a  respectable  degree  of  judgment 
and  intelligence.  They  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare 
of  their  own  country,  and  exhibit  a  pretty  correct  knowledge 
of  the  affairs  of  other  governments. 

(4.)  The  lofty  mountain  peaks  of  these  islands,  which  are 
mainly  destitute  of  vegetation,  or,  if  really  existing,  not  per- 
ceptible at  a  distance,  give  an  aspect  of  barrenness  to  the 
country  that  is  scarcely  warranted  by  the  fertility  of  the 
lovely  valleys  lying  sweetly  imbosomed  amid  the  broken  hills 
and  ridges.  Few  more  beautiful  spots  can  be  found  in  the 
world  than  these  charming  valleys  ;  that  of  Nuuanu  near 
Honolulu,  and  that  of  Manoa,  in  the  rear  of  Waikiki,  have 
excited  the  admiration  of  every  traveller  who  has  visited 
them.  The  scenery  of  the  other  islands  is  similar  ;  and 
where  the  hoary  mountains,  rising  amid  the  fields  of  indurated 
lava,  attain  the  loftiest  e'evation,  and  display  upon  their  sum- 
mits the  snow  and  frosts  of  cold  and  dreary  winter,  around 


380  SOIL    AND   CLIMATE.  [1840. 

their  feet  are  garlanded  the  richest  fruits  and  flowers,  min- 
gled with  the  greenest  verdure,  of  a  tropical  clime.  On 
the  hill  sides  the  soil  is  very  often  a  hard  red  clay,  which  can 
never  produce  anything  but  grass  for  pasturage  ;  but  in  the 
valleys  and  low  grounds  it  consists  of  decomposed  lava  and 
vegetation,  intermixed  with  coral  sand,  and  the  detritus 
washed  down  by  the  mountain  torrents.  This  last  is  highly 
productive,  though,  in  dry  weather,  it  is  easily  converted  into 
dust,  and  is  sometimes  quite  annoying. 

None  of  the  Polynesian  islands  can  boast  of  a  more  delight- 
ful climate.  The  purity,  elasticity,  and  equability  of  the  at- 
mosphere, are  unsurpassed.  The  nights,  in  particular,  are  very 
fine.  The  ordinary  range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  65°  to 
86°.  Showers  are  not  very  frequent  directly  along  the  coast, 
but  clouds  are  continually  forming  in  the  mountains,  and  are 
driven  by  the  winds  over  the  delightful  valleys  upon  which 
they  discharge  their  refreshing  tribute.  In  some  seasons,  the 
condensation  of  vapor  constantly  taking  place  in  the  moun- 
tains is  remarkable ;  drizzling  mists  are  ever  descending  in 
the  upper  ravines,  and  in  the  intervals  and  plains  beneath, 
rain  rapidly  alternates  with  the  sunshine.  It  might  be  sup- 
posed, from  this  fact,  that  the  climate  must  become  so  moist 
as  to  be  prejudicial  to  health  ;  but  as  the  islands  are  situated 
within  the  northern  trades,  blowing  from  the  north-east  to  the 
south-west,  the  fierce  winds,  called  by  the  natives  momukus, 
prevent  this  result.  On  account  of  the  prevalence  of  these 
winds,  it  is  much  more  pleasant  on  the  leeward  side  of  the 
islands,  than  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  vegetation  has  not 
that  peculiar  burnt  appearance  often  noticed  to  windward, 
but  looks  fresher,  greener,  and  more  thrifty.  Earthquakes 
occur  somewhat  frequently,  but  the  shocks  are  usually  quite 
slight,  and  it  is  very  seldom  that  they  produce  any  great 
damage. 

Pulmonary  affections,  and  scorbutic  complaints,  are  quite 
common.  The  principal  diseases  are  asthma,  consumption, 
croup,  influenza,  catarrh,  dropsy,  fevers,  apoplexy,  diarrhea, 
dysentery,  inflammation  of  the  viscera  from  over-eating  and 


1840.]  DISEASES.  381 

excessive  drinking,  cutaneous  eruptions,  ophthalmia,  fevers,  in- 
flammatory rheumatism,  ulcers,  scrofula,  and  syphilis.  Bil- 
iary complaints  and  hepatic  diseases  are  very  rare.  Previous 
to  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries  very  little  was  known  about 
medicine,  though  there  were  native  physicians  who  practiced 
a  great  deal  on  the  credufity  of  their  countrymen.  Almost 
the  only  remedies  then  prescribed  in  cases  of  sickness,  were 
doses  of  salt  water,  or  decoctions  of  the  candle-nut,  the  bitter 
calabash,  the  seeds  of  the  castor-oil  nut,  or  the  ipomoea,  as  ca- 
thartics. The  want  of  proper  medical  attendance  is  now 
generally  felt  throughout  the  islands,  although  the  missiona- 
ries render  all  the  medical  services  in  their  power,  without 
charge.  The  mortality  among  the  native  children  is  very 
great,  and  it  is  computed  that  full  one  sixth  of  the  population 
die  annually.  The  foreign  residents,  however,  appear  to 
enjoy  excellent  health  ;  and  the  climate  seems  to  be  exceed- 
ingly well  adapted  to  persons  born  in  the  United  States. 

(5.)  Almost  all  the  choice  fruit  and  timber  trees  of  the 
tropics  are  found  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  bread-fruit 
and  cocoa  flourish  very  well  along  the  coasts ;  they  are  as 
tall  and  as  stately,  but  not  so  umbrageous,  as  in  the  Feejec 
Group  or  the  Society  Islands.  The  other  important  trees 
are  the  koa  (acacia),  ahia,  pandanus,  hibiscus,  and  tuitui ;  of 
the  wood  of  the  koa,  the  finest  panel  work  of  the  native  churches, 
and  the  best  and  most  beautiful  furniture,  are  made.  The 
shady  tuitui  is  also  a  most  valuable  tree ;  oil  is  obtained  in 
great  quantities  from  the  nuts ;  they  are  also  roasted  and  eaten ; 
and  they  are  strung  on  a  straw,  or  a  fibre  of  the  pandanus 
leaf,  and  burned  as  torches.  The  i/ase,  or  sandal-wood,  was 
once  quite  plenty,  and  this  valuable  timber  was  at  first  the 
main  attraction  that  drew  foreigners  to  the  islands  ;  but  it  is 
now  nearly  extirpated,  and  there  are  only  a  few  scraggy 
bushes  to  be  found.  The  dark  evergreen  mangrove  is  spread 
all  over  the  low  country,  and  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  above 
the  customary  strip  of  woodland,  are  covered  with  ferns  of 
every  variety,  the  roots  of  which  are  edible,  with  whortleber- 
ries, called  ohea  by  the  natives,  and  wild  rasp  and  strawber- 


382  VEGETABLE    PRODUCTIONS.  [1840. 

ries.  The  ti  (dracosna)  has  been  found  very  useful  for 
hedges,  as  the  bushes  will  grow  closely  matted  together. 
The  tacca  grows  wild  in  considerable  abundance,  yet  there  is 
comparatively  but  little  arrow-root  manufactured. 

Bananas,  melons,  pine-apples,  grapes,  figs,  plantains,  rose 
apples  (eugenia),  yams,  and  other  rich  fruits  and  vegetables, 
are  raised  in  great  variety.  The  sweet  potatoes  produced 
here  are  unusually  fine  ;  they  are  like  the  delicious  amor- 
phous yams  of  the  West  Indies,  and  of  every  shade  of  color, 
from  dark  purple  to  red,  green,  or  yellow.  Irish  potatoes 
have  been  acclimated  and  succeed  well.  Indian  corn  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated.  The  coffee  bush,  and  the  indigo  and 
cotton  plant,  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate, 
and  come  forward  vigorously,  with  very  little  trouble  or  at- 
tention. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  sugar-cane,  large 
plantations  of  which  can  be  seen  on  the  alluvial  flats  in  all 
the  principal  islands.  Thirteen  varieties  of  the  taro  are  cul- 
tivated, both  on  the  uplands,  and  in  low  wet  places.  They 
are  more  plentiful  in  the  latter,  and  the  wide  green  patches 
are  the  most  conspicuous  objects  to  be  seen  along  the  shores 
of  the  islands.  This  plant  requires  a  great  quantity  of  mois- 
ture, and  the  land  where  it  is  grown  is  frequently  irrigated 
during  the  dry  weather, — the  water  being  pumped  from  the 
ponds  and  reservoirs  by  means  of  windmills. 

The  black  mulberry  is  a  native  of  the  islands.  Several 
years  since  an  extensive  silk  plantation  was  established  by  a 
company  of  foreigners,  on  the  island  of  Kauai,  and  quantities 
of  the  morus  papyfera  and  morus  alba  were  imported,  and 
set  out  with  the  native  mulberry.  The  trees  grew  with  ex- 
traordinary vigor  and  luxuriance,  and  the  morus  multicaulis 
was  subsequently  introduced.  Some  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  acclimating  the  cocoons,  but  on  crossing  the  Ameri- 
can breed  with  the  Chinese,  everything  promised  well. 
Machinery  was  now  constructed,  and  steam  power  provided. 
But  the  sanguine  expectations  of  the  projectors  of  this  enter- 
prise were  doomed  to  a  sudden  disappointment.  In  1840  a 
severe  drought  came  on  ;  the  trees  at  once  began  to  wither  ; 


1840.]  CALABASHES.  383 

aphides,  in  countless  numbers,  attached  themselves  to  the 
limbs  and  trunks,  and  exhausted  the  juices  ;  and  myriads  of 
spiders  threw  their  webs  over  the  leafless  branches,  and  com- 
pleted the  work  of  destruction.  Utterly  despairing  of  suc- 
cess, the  company  relinquished  the  undertaking  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  turned  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  sugar-cane. 

One  of  the  most  useful,  if  not  the  most  valuable  products 
of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  is  a  species  of  calabash-tree,  the 
fruit  of  which  is  very  large  and  more  flat  than  the  common 
varieties.  The  calabashes  are  often  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches  in  diameter,  and  some  of  them  are  said  to  be  large 
enough  to  hold  two  bushels.  They  are  much  used  by  the 
common  people,  in  conveying  fruit,  vegetables,  and  other 
light  articles.  For  this  purpose  they  are  suspended  in  a  net- 
work attached  to  the  extremity  of  a  pole,  which  the  kanaka 
balances  over  his  shoulder.  At  the  other  end  of  the  pole  there 
is  usually  a  similar  network,  containing,  also,  one  or  more 
well-filled  gourds,  or  a  large  stone,  to  preserve  the  equilibrium. 

Rich  succulent  grasses  carpet  the  plains  and  valleys,  from 
the  low  grounds  where  the  cocoa  displays  its  long  and  ele- 
gantly shaped  fronds,  and  the  waving  plumes  of  the  bread- 
fruit are  lifted  by  the  tropical  breezes,  to  the  elevated  regions 
where  the  beautiful  outlines  of  the  graceful  koa  are  distinctly 
traced  against  the  light  reddish  background  of  the  distant 
mountains.  Excellent  pasturage  is  therefore  afforded,  in  the 
interior  of  Hawaii,  for  considerable  herds  of  wild  cattle, 
originally,  it  is  said,  imported  from  California. 

Among  the  many  plants  and  shrubs  that  add  so  much 
beauty  and  loveliness  to  the  flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Group,  are 
numerous  arborescent  and  shrubby  geraniums,  vacciniums, 
and  daphnes.  There  are  the  most  beautiful  amaranths  ;  and 
the  crimson  flowered  dock,  the  white  viola,  the  orange  and 
scarlet  clusters  of  the  agati  grandiflora,  and  the  dark  crim- 
som  and  lilac  blossoms  of  the  pelargonium,  with  the  varied 
hues  of  many  a  more  humble  plant,  lend  their  rich  dyes  to 


384  zoology.  [1840. 

deck  the  Hawaiian  valleys  with   mantles  of  the  most  gor- 
geous embroidery. 

(6.)  Singing  birds,  and  others  whose  tones  are  not  melo- 
dious, but  displaying  the  most  beautiful  plumage,  abound  in 
the  groves  and  forests.  Of  aquatic  fowl  there  is  also  an 
abundance.  Tropic  birds,  whose  brilliant-colored  tail  feathers 
adorn  the  robes  of  royalty,  are  very  common ;  and  every- 
where along  the  coral  reefs,  and  upon  the  rocky  islets, 

"  Up  and  down !  up  and  down  ! 
From  the  base  of  the  wave  to  the  billow's  crown, 
And  amidst  the  flashing  and  feathery  foam, 
The  Stormy  Petrel  finds  a  home." 

Among  the  fish  are  whales  and  sharks,  which  frequent  tha 
coasts  at  certain  seasons,  and  the  black-fish,  bonito,  ray,  rock- 
fish  and  albicore.  Black-fish,  and  others  of  the  smaller  kinds, 
are  taken  in  great  quantities  by  driving  them  into  pens  made 
of  stones  in  the  shoal-water.  They  are  also  caught  with 
nets  and  hooks,  or  with  poisonous  herbs.  Shrimps  are  ob- 
tained in  plenty,  and  the  pearl  oyster  is  quite  abundant  in 
Pearl  river  and  its  inlet,  on  the  southern  coast  of  Oahu. 
After  the  taro  has  been  gathered,  the  patches  are  converted 
into  fish-ponds,  in  which  large  supplies  of  fish  are  kept  till 
they  are  required  in  the  markets  of  the  seaport  towns. 

Of  wild  animals  there  are  none  but  rats  and  mice,  except 
a  few  dogs  who  inhabit  the  caves  in  the  mountains.*  There 
are  small  herds  of  cattle,  too,  who  are  partially  wild,  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Hawaii,  though  they  are  said  to  be 
fast  disappearing.  Spaniards  from  California  used  frequently 
to  come  hither  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  them,  after  their 
own  fashion,  with  the  lasso.  They  are  likewise  often  caught 
in  deep  pits,  covered  over  lightly  with  brush  and  dirt,  upon 
which  the  hoof-prints  of  a  bullock  are  impressed.  After  they 
are  taken,  the  cattle  are  marked  by  branding,  and  kept  in 

*  Baked  dog  was  once  a  favorite  dish  with  the  Hawaiian  chief,  and  rats  and 
mice  were  not  unacceptable  ;  but  of  late  years,  these  dishes  are  no  longer  re- 
garded as  luxuries. 


1840.]  Honolulu.  385 

pastures,  in  readiness  to  supply  the  vessels  touching  at  the 
island.  Goats,  hogs  and  poultry,  are  raised  in  considerable 
numbers  on  all  the  larger  islands. 

Musquitoes,  fleas,  scorpions,  and  centipedes,  are  very 
abundant,  and  excessively  annoying.  The  natives  insist  that 
the  musquitoes  were  first  introduced  there  by  stranger  vessels  ; 
and  they  stoutly  affirm,  also,  that  the  flea  is  a  foreign  impor- 
tation. The  tradition  in  regard  to  the  advent  of  the  latter 
on  their  shores  is  as  follows  : — Many  years  ago  a  woman  from 
Waimea  went  out  to  a  ship  to  see  her  lover,  and  as  she  was 
about  to  return,  he  gave  her  a  bottle,  saying  that  there  was 
very  valuable  property  (waiwai)  contained  in  it,  but  that  she 
must  not  open  it,  on  any  account,  until  she  reached  the  shore. 
As  soon  as  she  gained  the  beach,  she  eagerly  uncorked  the 
bottle  to  examine  her  treasure,  but  nothing  was  to  be  dis- 
covered,— the  fleas  hopped  out,  and  "  they  have  gone  on  hop- 
ping and  biting  ever  since." 

(7.)  Honolulu  on  the  southern  coast  of  Oahu  is  the 
seat  of  government,  and  the  most  important  town  in  the 
group.  It  contains  about  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  one  fifth 
of  whom  are  foreigners.  It  is  prettily  situated  on  a  plain 
sloping  gently  down  to  the  beach,  and  has  a  very  good  harbor, 
formed  by  a  barrier  reef  of  coral  with  a  single  opening,  which 
is  capable  of  accommodating  from  sixty  to  seventy  vessels  of 
five  hundred  tons  burden.  Groves  of  tall  cocoas  border  the 
beach,  and  a  few  years  ago  they  were  the  only  shade  trees  to 
be  seen,  but  now  many  of  the  streets  are  well  ornamented 
with  them.  Its  principal  thoroughfare  is  called  Main  Street, 
and  most  of  the  houses  on  this  street,  or  within  two  or  three 
squares,  are  situated  within  neat  inclosures,  surrounded  by 
adobe  walls,  and  around  them  are  well  cultivated  gardens, 
stocked  with  fruit  trees,  plants,  shrubbery,  and  vegetables, 
that  impart  to  them  a  cheerful  rural  aspect.  On  the  out- 
skirts of  the  town  are  the  grass-thatched  habitations  of  the 
natives.  At  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  in  the  rear  of  the 
town  is  the  Puahi,  or  Punch-bowl  Hill,  an  extinct  crater 
rising  by  a  steep  ascent  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  hundrecj 

17 


BUILDINGS    IN    HONOLULU.  [1840 

feet,  which  obtained  its  present  name  from  the  foreign  resi- 
dents, on  account  of  the  cavity  at  the  top  being  shaped  very 
much  like  a  bowl.  On  the  west  are  the  mountains  of  Wai- 
anae,  and  on  the  east  is  Diamond  Hill,  considerably  larger  and 
higher  than  Puahi,  but  of  the  same  general  character.  On 
Punch-bowl  Hill  there  is  an  apology  for  a  fortification,  con- 
sisting of  a  flagstaff,  a  rude  stone  wall,  and  a  few  natural  em- 
brasures in  the  lava  rock,  with  a  straw-built  and  mud-plas- 
tered powder  magazine  ;  and  on  the  flank  of  Diamond  Hill  is 
a  battery,  also  in  a  state  of  dilapidation.  These  positions, 
however,  command  the  harbor  and  its  entrance,  and  if  prop- 
erly fortified  would  afford  ample  defence  to  the  town. 

There  are  three  large  churches  in  Honolulu,  one  of  which 
is  a  thatched  building,  two  hundred  feet  long ;  another, 
whose  walls  are  made  of  plastered  adobes,  is  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  long  and  sixty  feet  wide  ;  and  the  third  and 
more  recent  structure,  which  is  built  of  coral  stone  hewn  out 
in  entire  blocks,  is  two  stories  high,  one  hundred  and  forty- 
four  in  length  and  seventy -eight  in  breadth,  and  adorned 
with  a  tall  tapering  spire  much  like  those  of  American 
churches.*  Honolulu  likewise  contains  a  number  of  pretty 
school-houses  with  neat  cupolas ;  it  has  a  charity  school  and 
an  orphan  school ;  and,  furthermore,  it  can  boast  of  an  Insti- 
tute established  for  scientific  investigation  in  Polynesia,  which 
has  a  museum  of  curiosities  and  specimens  of  natural  history, 
and  a  library  of  several  hundred  volumes.  Besides  these 
more  important  and  useful  structures  and  institutions,  Hono- 
lulu contains  a  great  number  of  grog-shops,  billiard  rooms, 
dancing  halls,  and  sailors'  boarding  houses  ;  it  has  its  hotels 
and  livery  stables,  and  if  reports  be  true,  its  cock-pits  and 
gambling  saloons. 

Waikiki,  five  miles  east  of  Honolulu,  is  a  very  pleasant 

*  This  edifice  was  erected  mainly  by  the  contributions  of  the  natives,  and  it 
would  seem  that  they  are,  as  a  general  rule,  very  willing  to  bestow  their  laboi 
and  means  on  such  objects.  This  is  probably  owing,  in  some  degree,  to  the. 
fact,  that  in  former  times,  their  heiaus,  or  heathen  temples,  were  constructed  in 
a  similar  manner;  each  individual,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  being  required 
to  bring  one  or  more  stones  for  the  erection  of  the  contemplated  building. 


1840.]  OTHER    TOWNS.  387 

town ;  and  Kailua,  on  the  eastern  coast,  is  delightfully  situ- 
ated amid  a  charming  grove  of  waving  cocoas.  Near  the 
latter  is  a  cavern  extending  for  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred 
feet  under  ground,  and  adorned  with  the  most  beautiful  sta- 
lactites. 

Lahaina,  on  the  western  shore  of  Maui,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  Lanai,  is  the  country  residence  of  the  king,  Kama- 
meha  III.  It  is  also  a  great  resort  for  whalers  frequenting 
this  quarter  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  built  in  a  straggling  man- 
ner, for  three  quarters  of  a  mile  along  the  beach,  and  has  but 
one  principal  street.  Most  of  the  private  dwellings  are  built 
of  grass  in  the  native  fashion.  The  most  imposing  edifices 
are  the  king's  palace  which  is  constructed  of  coral  rock,  his 
storehouses  for  the  reception  of  the  royal  revenue,  and  a  rectan- 
gular fort,  inclosing  an  area  of  about  one  acre,  with  walls 
twenty  feet  high.  About  a  mile  and  a  half  in  the  rear  of  the 
town,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  is  the  seminary  of  Lahai- 
naluna,  the  main  building  of  which  is  two  stories  high  and  is 
surmounted  with  a  cupola.  Wailuku,  where  the  female 
seminary  is  located,  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  island. 

Hilo  Bay,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Hawaii,  is  one  of  the  best 
harbors  in  the  group.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the  Wailuku 
river,  is  easy  of  access,  and  quite  spacious.  lis  shores  are 
thickly  settled,  and  there  are  some  fine  native  villages  situ- 
ated near  or  upon  it.  The  town  of  Hilo,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  bay,  is,  in  the  season,  almost  concealed  amid  the  luxuri- 
ant growth  of  sugar-cane,  which  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  vicinity.  It  contains  the  largest  church  on  the  island, 
a  thatched  building  capable  of  holding  seven  thousand  per- 
sons. It  has  also  a  boarding-school  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls, 
conducted  on  the  manual  labor  plan.  There  are  a  number 
of  houses  in  this  village  which  are  built  of  coral  or  lava  blocks^ 
and  others  neatly  framed  and  put  together,  and  there  are  a 
few  surmounted  with  zinc  or  shingle  roofs.  Waiakea,  on  the 
east  side  of  Hilo  Bay,  is  the  best  place  for  landing,  and  it  is 
quite  prettily  located  and  presents  a  neat  appearance. 

On  the  western  side  of  Hawaii  is  Kealakekua  Bay,,  the 


388  PRIVATE   DWELLINGS.  [1840. 

scene  of  the  murder  of  Captain  Cook.  It  is  narrow,  and  does 
not  afford  very  good  anchorage,  but  the  scenery  around  it  is 
highly  picturesque.  Napolo,  on  its  southern  shore,  is  a  small 
but  pleasant  town,  where  there  is  a  missionary  station. 

Waimea,  on  the  southwestern  shore  of  Kauai,  is  said  to 
have  the  best  anchorage  in  the  group,  except  when  the  trades 
are  interrupted  by  the  south-westerly  winds,  which  is  for 
near  three  months  in  the  year.  It  contains  about  four  hun- 
dred houses,  and  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Waimea 
river,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  the  harbor,  or  roadstead,  in 
the  centre  of  a  beautiful  valley  opening  to  the  ocean  and 
lavishly  sprinkled  with  groves  of  bread-fruits,  cocoas,  bananas, 
and  tuituis,  or  candle-nut  trees.  On  the  left  of  the  entrance 
to  the  harbor,  there  is  a  rectangular  fort,  indented  with  em- 
brasures and  garnished  with  several  pieces  of  cannon.  The 
river  is  navigable  for  boats,  only  for  a  distance  of  three 
quarters  of  a  mile.  It  has  a  course  of  about  fifteen  miles, 
and  affords  a  number  of  excellent  mill  sites.  At  its  head 
there  is  a  fine  cascade,  the  soft  murmur  of  whose  falling 
waters  is  borne  sweetly  along  the  valley,  amid  the  groves 
that  rejoice  in  their  grateful  moisture. 

Most  of  the  better  class  of  dwelling  houses  in  the  group 
are  built  of  coral  or  lava  blocks,  which  are  cemented  together 
with  a  fine  white  plaster  made  of  lime  produced  by  burning 
coral.  The  foreign  residents  pattern  after  the  styles  of  build- 
ing peculiar  to  their  respective  countries.  Glazed  windows, 
porticos  and  chimneys,  have  become  quite  common.  -  The 
roofs  are  made  of  zinc  or  shingles,  or  they  are  thatched  with 
pandanus  leaves.  In  Honolulu,  and  other  seaports,  many  of 
the  private  dwellings  have  a  cupola  or  look-out  on  the  roof,  to 
which  the  inmates  betake  themselves  when  a  strange  vessel 
is  announced  in  the  offing. 

But  the  natives  generally,  and  the  kanakas  in  particular, 
prefer  their  old-fashioned  grass-houses.  The  manner  of  their 
construction  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Bingham  : — "  Round 
posts,  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  are  set  in  the  ground  about 
a  yard  apart,  rising  from  three  to  five  fee  -  from  the  surface. 


1840.]  <5RASS-HOUSES.  389 

On  a  shoulder,  near  the  top,  is  laid  a  horizontal  pole,  two  or 
three  inches  in  diameter,  as  a  plate  ;  on  this,  directly  over  the 
posts,  rest  the  rafters.  A  point  of  the  post,  called  a  finger, 
rises  on  the  outside  of  the  plate,  and  passes  between  two 
points  of  the  rafter  projecting  over  the  plate  and  below  the 
main  shoulder.  The  joint  thus  constructed  is  held  together 
partly  by  the  natural  pressure  of  the  roof,  and  partly  by  lash- 
ings of  bark,  vines,  or  grassy  fibres,  beaten,  and  by  hand 
twisted  and  doubled  into  a  coarse  twine,  and  put  on  manifold, 
so  as  to  act  as  four  braces — two  from  the  post,  and  two  from 
the  rafter,  extending  to  the  plate,  all  being  attached  six  to 
twelve  inches  from  the  joint.  Three  poles  or  posts,  about 
three  times  the  length  of  the  side  posts,  are  set  in  the  ground, 
one  in  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  the  others  at  the  ends, 
on  which  rests  the  nether  ridge  pole,  supporting  the  head  of 
the  rafters.  These  crossing  each  other,  the  angle  above  re- 
ceives the  upper  ridge  pole,  which  is  lashed  to  the  nether  and 
to  the  head  of  the  rafters.  Posts  of  unequal  length  are  set 
at  the  ends  of  the  building,  sloping  a  little  inward  and  reach- 
ing to  the  end  rafters,  to  which  their  tops  are  tied.  A  door 
frame,  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  is  placed  between  two  end 
or  side  posts.  Thatch-poles  are  tied  horizontally  to  the  posts 
and  rafters,  from  an  inch  to  three  inches  apart,  all  around, 
and  from  the  ground  to  the  top  ridge  pole.  At  this  stage  the 
building  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  huge,  rude  bird-cage. 
It  is  then  covered  with  the  leaf  of  the  ki,  pandanus,  sugar- 
cane, or  more  commonly  (as  in  the  case  of  the  habitations 
for  us)  with  grass,  bound  or  in  small  bundles,  side  by  side, 
one  tier  overlapping  another,  like  shingles.  A  house  thus 
thatched  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  long  haystack  without, 
and  a  cage  in  a  haymow  within.  The  area,  or  ground  within, 
is  raised  a  little  with  earth,  to  prevent  the  influx  of  water, 
and  spread  with  grass  and  mats,  answering  usually  instead 
of  floors,  tables,  chairs,  sofas,  and  beds.  Air  can  pass  through 
the  thatching,  and  often  there  is  one  small  opening  through 
the  thatch  besides  the  door,  for  ventilation  and  light."* 
*  Bingham's  Sandwich  Islands,  pp.  115,  116. 


390  COMMERCIAL    IMPORTANCE.  [1840 

"When  these  houses  are  first  constructed,  the  smell  of  the 
sweet-scented  grass  is  quite  refreshing,  but  when  they  be- 
come old,  the  rats  and  other  vermin  harbor  in  them,  and  the 
thatching  readily  contracts  dampness  and  mould.  In  the 
better  class  of  native  habitations,  there  are  window  frames, 
shutters,  and  partitions ;  but  the  kanaka  is  content  with  a 
single  apartment,  which  is  his  kitchen,  parlor  and  bed-chamber, 
and-  often  his  hen-coop  and  pig-sty.  The  natives  sleep  prin- 
cipally on  mats  of  pandanus  leaves,  or  tapa,  neatly  interwoven 
with  colored  straw,  piled  up  several  thicknesses  deep.  Since 
they  have  been  able  to  procure  iron  tools  and  instruments, 
their  mechanics  manufacture  a  great  many  articles  of  furni- 
ture of  the  koa  wood,  such  as  tables,  chairs,  chests,  and 
bureaux  ;  and  some  or  all  of  these  are  now  frequently  seen 
in  their  houses. 

(8.)  The  supremacy  of  the  law,  at  length  permanently 
established,  as  it  is  believed,  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  must 
be  of  great  benefit  to  them  in  a  commercial  point  of  view. 
To  the  whalers  frequenting  the  Pacific  this  is  of  great  im- 
portance, and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  for  their  sake,  that  the 
attempt  of  the  French  government  to  compel  the  authorities 
of  this  group  to  do  away  with  the  heavy  duties  on  ardent 
spirits,  now  (1849)  being  made,  may  prove  wholly  unsuccess- 
ful. The  position  of  the  islands  is  favorable,  not  merely  for 
whalers  desiring  to  recruit  or  to  obtain  supplies,  but  for  mer- 
chant vessels,  proceeding  by  the  shortest  route,  according  to 
the  principles  of  great  circle  sailing,  from  the  American  ports 
on  the  Pacific  to  China  and  the  East  Indies,  to  stop  at  for 
refreshments,  or  for  steamers  to  obtain  a  new  supply  of  coal 
from  depots  established  here.*     The  capacity  of  the  country 

*  About  five  hundred  whaling  vessels  annually  visit  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
for  refreshment.  The  average  time  of  a  passage  from  California  to  the  islands 
is  twenty  days ;  from  Astoria  or  Tahiti,  twenty-five  days ;  from  China,  sixty 
days ;  from  Sydney,  eighty-four  days ;  from  New  York,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn, 
one  hundred  and  forty-six  days ;  and  from  London,  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
days.  Quite  recently,  a  commercial  treaty  has  been  entered  into,  by  commis- 
sioners representing  the  respective  governments  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Hawaiian  Group,  under  which  a  line  of  steamers  to  ply  between  San  Francisco 
and  China  are  to  touch  at  the  islands. 


1840.]  MANUFACTURES.  391 

for  the  production  of  valuable  articles  of  commerce  is  hardly 
yet  ascertained,  but  these  seem  to  be  annually  increasing  in 
importance. 

The  chief  products,  besides  the  provisions  and  refreshments 
furnished  to  whalers  and  other  vessels  stopping  at  the  islands, 
are  sugar,  cotton,  tuitui  oil,  salt,  hides,  goat-skins,  molasses 
and  sirup,  sandal-wood,  leaf  tobacco,  sperm  oil,  and  arrow- 
root. The  exports,  including  with  the  above  mentioned  ar- 
ticles the  supplies  sold  to  vessels,  amount  annually  to  not  far 
from  two  hundred  thousand  dollars.  The  imports  often  ex- 
ceed six  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  a  single  year ;  but  about 
one  half  of  this  amount  are  purchases  by  traders  designed  for 
reshipment  to  the  Russian  and  American  settlements  on  the 
Pacific,  and  to  the  southern  islands.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  twenty-five  hundred  tons  of  shipping  owned  in  the 
islands  ;  one  half  of  this  amount  belonging  to  Americans,  one 
third  to  Englishmen,  and  the  remainder  to  the  natives. 
Much  the  larger  proportion  of  the  foreign  residents  are  Amer- 
icans, and  the  trade  of  the  islands  is  mainly  in  their  hands. 
Nearly  one  half  of  the  imports  come  from  the  United  States, 
and  the  number  of  American  ships  arriving  at  the  islands  is 
more  than  double  those  from  all  other  foreign  countries.  Now 
that  California  has  attained  so  much  commercial  importance, 
this  ascendency  of  the  American  interests  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  must  be  still  greater. 

But  little  attention  has  yet  been  paid  to  manufactures,  al- 
though the  numerous  streams  that  descend  from  the  moun- 
tain ridges  in  the  interior  of  the  islands,  afford  the  finest 
water  power.  Great  skill  and  taste  are  displayed  by  the 
native  women  in  making  their  beautiful  tapas,  some  of  which 
are  printed  in  close  imitation  of  merino  shawls  and  ribands. 
Cotton  manufactories  have  been  established,  but  none  except 
the  coarser  fabrics  have  been  made  ;  though,  with  improved 
machinery  and  experience  in  its  management,  they  will  pro- 
duce articles  much  superior  to  the  tapa  cloth,  and  the  latter 
must  consequently  soon  go  out  of  use.  Sugar  mills  are  quite 
plenty.     The  salt  works  are  very  extensive  on  some  of  the 


392  canoes.  [1840 

islands.  Between  Honolulu  and  Waikiki,  on  the  island  of 
Oahu,  there  are  a  great  number  of  ponds,  where  large  quan- 
tities of  salt  are  obtained  by  evaporation.  Niihau  is  well 
adapted  for  this  purpose,  and  affords  every  facility  for  em- 
barking in  the  manufacture  to  any  extent. 

Building  vessels  and  canoes,  at  this  day,  is  far  more  of  an 
art,  and  a  great  deal  more  neatly  done,  at  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  than  when  they  were  first  visited  by  the  whites. 
Whaleboats  are  frequently  used  by  the  natives  for  short  jour- 
neys along  the  coasts,  though  they  still  adhere,  more  or  less, 
to  the  ancient  canoe.  The  latter  is  much  better  built  than 
formerly,  and  the  lashings  of  sennit,  and  the  gum  of  the  bread- 
fruit, have  given  place  to  good  spikes  and  pitch.  They  are 
very  narrow,  and  are  usually  provided  with  an  outrigger, — 
which  consists  of  two  light  sticks  secured  upon  the  gunwale 
of  the  craft,  and  projecting  to  windward  from  six  to  ten  feet, 
where  they  are  crossed  and  connected  by  another  stick  run- 
ning parallel  to  the  canoe.  The  outrigger  serves  to  steady 
the  boat,  and  prevent  its  upsetting ;  but  if  it  breaks  or  gives 
way,  when  the  huge  sail  is  stretched  by  the  fierce  wind,  woe 
be  to  the  luckless  mariner. 

(9.)  On  the  24th  day  of  September,  the  Vincennes  came 
to  anchor  in  the  roads  of  Honolulu,  and  was  joined  by  the 
Peacock  on  the  30th  instant.  The  Porpoise  and  tender  were 
employed  for  several  days,  subsequent  to  the  departure  of  the 
two  larger  vessels  from  the  Feejee  Group,  in  examining  Na- 
tava  Bay  and  watching  the  conduct  of  the  natives  to  the  mis- 
sionaries at  Somu-Somu  ;  but  they  also  reached  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  in  safety,  early  in  the  month  of  October.  As 
the  time  for  which  the  crews  had  originally  engaged,  was 
about  expiring,  they  were  here  reshipped,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, for  an  additional  period  of  eighteen  months,  and  the  com- 
plements were  filled  by  the  temporary  employment  of  a  suit- 
able number  of  kanakas,  who  were  to  be  discharged  on  the 
return  of  the  Squadron  from  the  north-west  coast  of  America. 
The  Porpoise,  Lieutenant  Ringgold,  sailed  on  the  16th  of  No- 
vember, to  make  a  reexamination  of  the  Paumotu  Group,  whicj> 


1841.]         DEPARTURE    OF    THE    AMERICAN   VESSELS.  393 

has  been  previously  mentioned  ;  and  on  the  2d  of  December, 
the  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish,  under  the  command  of  Cap- 
tain Hudson,  took  their  departure,  to  resurvey  a  part  of  the 
Samoan  Group,  and  to  look  for  doubtful  islands  to  the  north 
and  west.  The  Vincennes  remained  in  the  Hawaiian  Group, 
mostly  at  Honolulu  and  Hilo  Bay,  during  the  winter.  On 
the  24th  of  March,  1841,  the  Porpoise  rejoined  the  flag  ship 
at  Honolulu,  and  on  the  5th  of  April  they  set  sail,  in  com- 
pany, for  the  American  coast.  They  were  favored  with  a 
pleasant  passage,  and  on  the  2d  day  of  May,  came  to  anchor 
at  Port  Discovery  in  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca. 

17* 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

(1 )  Cruise  of  the  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish.  Washington  Island.  Phoenix 
Group. — (2.)  Duke  of  York's,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  Bowditch  Islands. 
Appearance  of  the  Inhabitants. — (3.)  Visit  to  the  Samoan  Group.  Burning 
of  the  Heathen  Towns. — (4.)  Ellice's  Group.  Character  of  the  Population. 
Dress  and  Houses. — (5.)  The  Kingsmill  Islands.  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Inhabitants. — (6.)  Arrival  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  Loss  of 
the  Peacock. 

(1.)  Rapidly  speeding  on  their  way  to  the  south,  the  Peacock 
and  Flying  Fish  made  the  first  land  at  Washington,  or  New 
York  Island,  in  latitude  40°  41'  35"  N.,  and  longitude  160° 
15'  37"  W.  This  is  a  charming  little  islet,  rising  only  about 
ten  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  but  fringed  to  the 
very  breakers  with  the  graceful  cocoas,  whose  long  trailing 
fronds  are  beautifully  mirrored  in  the  clear  glassy  waters  of 
the  ocean,  and  with  numerous  other  tropical  trees  and  plants, 
that  fill  the  air  with  the  perfume  of  their  ripening  fruit  and 
odorous  flowers.  It  is  only  three  and  a  quarter  miles  in 
length,  by  one  and  a  quarter  in  width,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
uninhabited.  The  American  vessels  were  unable  to  send  a 
boat  ashore  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  surf,  but  no  evidences 
of  its  being  occupied  by  human  beings  were  discovered ;  and 
the  sea-birds  are,  in  all  probability,  rarely,  if  ever,  disturbed 
in  the  shady  retreats  where  they  have  built  their  nests,  and 
rear  their  young. 

Continuing  on  his  southerly  course,  Captain  Hudson 
passed  Jarvis  Island,  just  south  of  the  Equator,  on  the  20th 
of  December,  and  on  the  9th  of  January,  1841,  made  Ender- 
bury's  Island,  belonging  to  the  Phoenix  Group.  Passing 
through  this  cluster  of  coralline  reefs  and  islands, — which  lie 
just  north  of  five  degrees  southern  latitude,  and  west  of  the 


184L]  THE    UNION    GRCJUP.  395 

170th  meridian,  western  longitude,  and  are  famous  only  for  the 
quantity  of  turtles  taken  here  by  parties  of  Tahitians  and 
Samoans, — the  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish  made  the  Duke  of 
York's  Island,  or  Oatafu,  in  latitude  8°  36'  S.,  and  longi- 
tude 172°  23'  52"  W.,  on  the  25th  day  of  January.  On  the 
28th  instant,  they  arrived  off  the  Duke  of  Clarence  Island, 
called  by  the  natives  Nukonono,  a  few  miles  further  to  the 
south-east.*  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  29th,  having  con- 
tinued on  their  way  in  the  same  direction,  they  discovered 
a  new  island,  to  which  the  name  of  Bovvditch  Island  was 
given,  though  the  proper  native  appellation  was  ascertained 
to  be  Fakaafo.     These  three  islands  form  the  Union  Group. 

(2.)  The  three  islands  last  mentioned  lie  very  nearly  in  a 
straight  row  or  line,  running  from  south-east  to  north-west — 
Oatafu  being  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  miles  distant 
from  Fakaafo,  or  Bowditch  Island.  These  islands  are  of  coral 
formation,  and  consist  of  rings  or  circlets  of  coral  surrounding 
lagoons,  like  the  atolls  of  the  Paumotu  Group.  The  reefs, 
which  are  in  no  place  over  ten  feet  above  the  water,  are  covered 
with  a  soil  consisting  of  decomposed  coral,  vegetable  mould, 
and  guano  ;  and  they  are  adorned  with  the  most  beautiful 
cocoa-nut  trees,  with  the  pandanus,  the  pisonia,  the  ficus,  and 
the  tournefortia.  The  most  luxuriant  parasitic  ferns  cover 
the  loftiest  trees,  and  the  long  delicate  sprays  of  the  jasmine 
depend  here  and  there  from  the  overhanging  branches,  and 
scatter  their  flowers  and  their  perfume  on  every  passing 
wind. 

Oatafu  is  but  threj  miles  in  length,  from  east  to  west,  and 
two  and  a  half  miles  wide,  and  contains  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  inhabitants.  Nukunono  is  seven  and  a  quarter 
miles  long,  from  north  to  south,  and  five  miles  wide  :  it  is 
also  populated,  and  is  supposed  to  contain  two  or  three  hun- 
dred inhabitants.  Fakaafo  is  the  most  important  island  of 
the  three,  and  the  great  chief,  to  whom  the  natives  of  the 
group,  or  cluster,  pay  deference,  resides  here.     It  is  called 

*  Lord  Byron,  the  English  navigator,  discovered  Oatafu  and  Nukonono,  in 
1765,  and  named  them  after  the  Royal  Dukes. 


396  THE    INHABITANTS.  [184L. 

by  the  inhabitants  Fanua  Loa,  or  the  "  Great  Land,"  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  other  islands  ;  it  is  about  eight  miles 
long  and  four  wide,  and  its  population  numbers  not  far  from 
six  hundred. 

The  people  inhabiting  these  islands  resemble,  both  in  form 
and  feature,  the  natives  of  the  Samoan  Group,  and  their  dia- 
lect is  also  similar.  Some  of  the  young  men  and  women  are 
quite  good-looking,  and  hare  very  light  complexions.  They 
have  had  but  little  intercourse  with  the  whites,  and  still  en- 
tertain the  notion  that  the  latter  came  from  the  skies  in  their 
ships.  They  are  a  quiet,  harmless,  timid,  and  tractable 
people,  but  much  addicted  to  thieving.  The  young  persons 
of  both  sexes  go  entirely  naked,  but  the  adults  wear  the  maro} 
which  is  made  of  pandanus  leaves  of  the  finest  texture. 
The  maro  worn  by  the  males  is  from  six  to  eighteen  inches 
wide,  and  is  often  bordered  with  fringe  :  that  of  the  females 
resembles  the  liku  of  the  Feejeean  women,  and  consists  of  a 
great  number  of  leaves  tied  to  a  cord,  slit  into  fine  threads, 
and  made  perfectly  pliable  by  frequent  oiling  ;  they  form  a 
thick  mat  about  the  body,  and  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  fifty 
pounds.  Tattooing  is  practiced  by  both  sexes  ;  their  cheeks, 
breasts,  legs  and  loins,  being  ornamented  with  the  figures 
of  turtles,  fish,  arrows,  and  divers  other  designs,  some  intended 
to  imitate  nature,  and  others  originating  with  the  fancy  of 
the  operator.  On  their  heads  they  wear  a  piece  of  matting 
or  tortoise-shell,  shaped  like  the  front  of  a  cap,  or  an  eye 
shade,  to  protect  their  faces  from  the  scorching  heat  of  tho 
sun  :  some  of  them  are  adorned  with  the  feathers  of  the  tropic 
bird,  to  indicate  the  superiority  of  the  wearer.  For  ornaments 
they  have  necklaces  and  ear-rings  of  shell  and  bone. 

Their  houses  are  built  in  clusters,  or  villages,  surrounding 
an  open  space  called  males.  They  are  of  an  oblong  form, 
about  fifteen  feet  high  in  the  centre,  and  sloping  down  grad- 
ually with  a  slight  convexity  to  within  two  or  three  feet  of 
the  ground.  The  rafters  are  secured  to  the  supporting  posts 
and  to  the  ridge  pole  by  lashings  of  sennit.  At  the  gable- 
ends,  the  roof,  which  is  a  loose  thatching  of  pandanus  leaves, 


1841.]  DWELLINGS   AND   CUSTOMS.  397 

projects  several  feet,  as  a  protection  against  the  weather, — the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  houses  not  being  closed  in.  Like  their 
persons,  the  houses  of  the  natives  are  kept  quite  clean  and 
neat.  Their  only  articles  of  furniture  are  a  few  gourds  and 
cocoa-nut  shells,  some  boxes  or  buckets  cut  out  of  the 
solid  wood  and  neatly  fitted  with  lids  or  covers,  and  large 
mats  woven  of  pandanus  leaves,  four  feet  square,  on  which 
they  sleep  at  night,  covering  themselves,  if  necessary,  with 
lighter  mats  made  of  the  same  material.  They  have,  also,  a 
reclining  stool,  or  lounge,  cut  from  a  solid  block  of  wood,  and 
elevated  at  one  end,  by  two  legs,  so  as  to  form  an  angle  of 
forty- five  degrees. 

On  Bowditch  Island  is  the  house  or  temple  of  their  god, 
Tui-Tokelau.  It  is  of  the  same  shape  as  the  private  houses, 
and  is  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  long,  and  twenty  feet  high. 
The  roof  is  concave,  and  projects  some  distance  at  the  eaves, 
where  the  pandanus  leaves  that  compose  the  thatching  are 
tied  together  at  intervals,  and  present  a  notched  or  scolloped 
appearance.  The  sides  and  ends  are  open,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  low  railing,  only  fifteen  inches  high.  Within,  there 
is  an  abundance  of  mats,  and  rudely  fashioned  benches  carved 
out  of  the  solid  wood ;  also  a  number  of  gods,  or  idols,  of 
wood  or  stone,  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high. 

The  natives  of  these  islands  seem  to  be  ignorant  of  the  uses 
of  fire.  They  never  cook  their  victuals,  but  subsist  mainly 
on  the  fruit  of  the  cocoa  and  pandanus,  with  the  fish  that  they 
capture  near  the  reefs,  and  in  the  lagoons,  all  which  are  eaten 
in  a  raw  state.  On  the  larger  islands  they  dig  wells  in  the 
ground,  which  are  neatly  walled  up  on  the  inside  ;  but  where 
the  ground  is  very  low,  as  is  the  case  on  Oatafu,  they  catch 
fresh  water  in  excavations  made  in  the  body  of  the  cocoa-nut 
trees,  on  the  lee-side,  and  about  two  feet  from  the  ground. 

They  have  both  double  and  single  canoes,  made  of  pieces 
of  wood  sewed  together  with  sennit,  like  those  of  the 
Samoans,  and  their  paddles  are  of  the  same  fashion.  They 
have  outriggers,  likewise,  but  no  sails ;  and  they  ornament 
their  craft  with  the  shells  of  the  cyprecz  ovula.     These  canoes 


398  ARRIVAL    AT    THE    SAMOAN    GROUP.  [1841. 

are  principally  used  in  fishing,  for  which  they  have  hooks  of 
shell,  bone,  or  shark's  teeth,  attached  to  long  lines  made  of 
twisted  bark.  For  the  protection  of  their  boats  they  have 
large  quays  built  of  coral  blocks,  containing  slips  ten  feet 
wide,  in  which  there  are  boat  houses  erected  on  poles  and 
thatched  with  pandanus  leaves. 

Of  mechanical  ingenuity  they  possess  a  great  share.  Their 
houses,  canoes,  mats,  stools,  boxes,  and  fish  hooks,  all  denote 
the  possession  of  considerable  skill  by  the  makers.  The  in- 
struments with  which  they  work  are  saws  and  files,  formed 
of  shark's  skins  stretched  on  sticks,  and  a  drill.  The  drill 
consists  of  a  long  stick  passing  through  a  flat  circular  piece 
of  wood,  designed  to  steady  it  when  in  operation  :  at  the 
lower  end  a  sharp-pointed  stone  is  attached  with  bark  twine, 
and  the  motion  is  communicated  by  means  of  a  handle  cross- 
ing the  upright  stick  at  right  angles,  near  the  centre,  and 
secured  in  its  place  by  a  lashing  of  sennit. 

They  have  a  keen  relish  for  the  ridiculous,  and  are  fond 
of  dancing.  Their  dances  are  like  those  on  the  other  islands 
of  Polynesia.  For  music  they  have  two  different  kinds  of 
drums  ;  one  made  of  a  hollow  log,  like  those  of  the  Feejeeans 
and  Tongese,  and  the  other  consisting  of  a  cylindrical  frame 
set  upright  in  the  ground,  with  a  shark's  skin  drawn  over  it, 
as  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  When  they  salute  each  other, 
or  a  stranger,  they  rub  noses  and  chins  together,  and  encircle 
the  neck  with  their  arms,  uttering  at  the  same  time  a  low 
wail,  like  the  aloha  of  the  Sandwich  Islander. 

(3.)  Captain  Hudson  remained  but  a  short  time  at 
Fakaafo,  but  continued  without  delay  on  his  route  to  the 
Samoan  Group,  stopping  on  the  way  only  long  enough  to  sur- 
vey Swain's  Island,  a  circular  coral  islet,  without  a  lagoon, 
but  little  over  four  miles  in  circumference,  in  latitude  11°  5' 
S.,  and  longitude  170°  55'  15"  W.  On  the  5th  of  February 
the  tall  mountains  of  Savaii  were  discovered  looming  up 
above  the  southern  horizon,  and  on  the  afternoon  of  the  6th 
instant,  the  Peacock  anchored  in  the  harbor  of  Apia,  while 


1841.]  ellice's  group.  399 

the  Flying  Fish  proceeded  to  survey  the  south  side  of  the 
island  of  Upolu. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  second  visit  of  Captain  Hud- 
son to  the  Samoan  Group  was  to  obtain  satisfaction  for  the 
recent  murder  of  an  American  seaman  belonging  to  a  whal- 
ing vessel.  The  murderer  had  been  protected  by  Sangapo- 
lutale,  the  principal  chief  of  the  heathen  towns  of  Saluafata, 
Fusi,  and  Salalese,  on  the  island  of  Upolu,  who  refused  to 
surrender  him.  On  the  22d  of  February,  Captain  Hudson 
made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  capture  the  chief,  with  the 
intention  of  detaining  him  until  the  murderer  should  be  sur- 
rendered. Failing  in  this,  it  was  deemed  important  to  inflict 
a  severe  punishment,  in  order  that  the  crews  of  vessels  visit- 
ing the  islands  might  be  secure  from  molestation.  Accord- 
ingly, a  party  was  landed  at  Saluafata  on  the  morning  of  the 
25th  of  February,  the  inhabitants  having  been  first  driven 
from  the  town  by  the  guns  of  the  Peacock,  and  that  town, 
as  well  as  those  of  Fusi  and  Salalese,  were  reduced  to  ashes, 
without  encountering  the  natives  or  sustaining  any  loss. 

From  Apia  Captain  Hudson  proceeded  to  Mataatu,  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  island  of  Savaii ;  and  on  the  6th  of 
March  he  took  his  departure,  with  both  vessels,  for  Ellice's 
Group. 

(4.)  At  noon  on  the  14th  instant,  the  island  of  Fanafute 
was  made.  This  is  one  of  Ellice's  Group,  or  the  Depeyster 
Islands,  and  is  in  latitude  8°  30'  45"  S.,  and  longitude  179° 
13'  30"  E.  It  is  thirteen  miles  long  and  seven  and  a  quar- 
ter miles  wide,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  small  islets  on  a 
coral  reef,  with  two  openings  on  the  west  side,  surrounding  a 
lagoon  that  affords  good  anchorage.  There  are  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  inhabitants  on  the  island. — Not  far  from 
forty  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Fanafute,  or  Ellice's  Island, 
is  Depeyster's  Island,  called  by  the  natives  Nukufetau.  It 
contains  one  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  eight  miles  in 
length,  and  about  the  same  in  width  ;  and  in  its  centre  there 
is  a  lagoon,  having  from  seventeen  to  twenty  fathoms  of 
water,  and  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  deep  ship  channel. 


400  APPEARANCE    OF   THE   NATIVES.  [1841. 

Nearly  thirty  miles  north-east  of  Nukufetau,  is  another 
atoll  of  about  the  same  size,  known  as  Tracy's  Island  among 
navigators,  but  called  Oaitupu  by  the  natives.  The  popula- 
tion of  this  island  is  said  to  be  from  three  to  four  hundred. 
Near  the  sixth  parallel  of  southern  latitude,  still  further  to 
the  north-west,  are  three  coral  islets — St.  Augustine,  Spie- 
den's  Island,  and  Hudson's  Island — the  last  two  named, 
respectively,  after  the  purser  and  commander  of  the  Peacock. 
All  three  of  these  islands  are  inhabited,  but  the  population 
cannot  be  very  large. 

The  islands  belonging  to  Ellice's  Group  are  well-wooded 
with  the  cocoa-nut,  pandanus,  and  pisonia.  The  inhabitants 
subsist  on  the  fruit  of  the  first  two,  together  with  a  species 
of  taro  and  another  larger  root,  called  pulaka,  and  the  fish 
that  they  take  in  abundance  from  the  neighboring  waters ; 
to  which  is  now  and  then  added  a  pig  from  the  small  stock 
on  the  islands.  They  are  evidently  descended  from  the 
natives  of  the  Union  Group,  though  they  are  far  less  re- 
served, and  appear  to  have  had  more  frequent  intercourse 
with  the  whites.  Their  complexion  is  several  shades  darker 
than  that  of  the  Samoans,  but  there  is  a  striking  similarity 
in  their  respective  dialects.  They  are  of  middle  size,  slen- 
der, and  well-proportioned,  though  not  handsome  ;  and  their 
features  are  sharp  and  distinctly  marked,  like  those  of 
the  Hawaiians.  They  salute  strangers  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  natives  of  the  Union  Group,  but  they  are  more  active 
and  sociable,  and,  withal,  more  licentious.  Their  hair  is 
fine,  black,  and  glossy,  and  is  worn  long,  sometimes  hanging 
over  the  ears  and  shoulders,  and  at  others  gathered  up  in  a 
number  of  puffs  or  rolls  on  the  head.  The  men  allow  tfterr 
beards  and  moustaches  to  grow,  and  seem  to  be  as  proud  of 
these  appendages  as  a  Feejeean.  Holes  are  bored  in  the 
lobes  of  their  ears  and  distended,  and  tortoise-shell  rings 
inserted  in  them. 

Tattooing  is  quite  tastefully  performed  among  them. 
The  men  ornament  their  bodies,  from  the  navel  half-way 
down  the  thighs,  principally  with  horizontal  stripes ;  and  the 


1841.]  KINGSMILL    GROUP.  401 

arms  and  legs  of  the  women  are  similarly  embellished. 
Both  sexes  wear  the  maro,  which  is  made  of  the  finest  pan- 
danus  leaves,  and  prettily  fringed;  also  a  girdle,  called  takai, 
with  a  heavy  fringe,  two  feet  broad  for  the  women,  and  from 
eight  inches  to  a  foot  for  the  men ;  and  some  have  mats  as 
wrappers  about  their  bodies.  The  women,  too,  often  wear 
soft  mats  over  their  bosoms,  and  the  men  have  similar  arti- 
cles sometimes  thrown  over  their  shoulders.  The  fringe  of 
the  maro  and  the  girdle  are  usually  dyed  red,  or  some  other 
bright  color ;  and  the  fringes  of  the  mats  are  tinged  of 
various  colors,  in  large  squares  or  diamonds.  A  band  of 
pandanus  leaves  is  frequently  tied  about  the  head  or  waist, 
with  the  strips  sticking  out  horizontally  in  every  direction 
like  so  many  horns  or  points. 

Their  canoes  are  rudely  made.  They  are  dug  out  of  a 
single  log,  usually  about  twenty  feet  long,  and  have  strips 
lashed  on  at  the  sides  to  raise  them  higher.  Their  sails  are 
of  a  triangular  shape,  and  their  outriggers  and  paddles  resem- 
ble those  seen  in  other  Polynesian  groups.  Their  fish-hooks 
are  carved  out  of  wood  or  of  shark's  teeth.  They  have  roughly 
hewn  war-clubs  and  spears,  consisting  merely  of  poles  of 
cocoa-nut  wood  sharpened  at  the  point.  Swords  and  knives 
are  made  of  shark's  teeth  fitted  into  a  stick,  and  fastened 
with  gum  and  sennit. 

(5.)  Holding  on  his  course  to  the  north-west,  Captain 
Hudson  fell  in  with  Taputeouea,  or  Drummond's  Island,  on 
the  3d  day  of  April.  This  island,  and  fourteen  or  fifteen 
others,  constitute  the  Tarawan  or  Kingsmill  Group,*  lying 
just  west  of  the  175th  meridian,  east  latitude,  and  stretch- 
ing across  the  equator,  from  latitude  1°  20'  S.  to  about  4°  N. 
They  are  of  all  sizes, — Drummond's  Island,  which  is  tho 
largest  and  southernmost  of  the  group,  being  thirty  miles  in 
length,  and  from  a  half  to  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  width, 
and  the  smaller  ones,  or  the  atolls,  having  a  diameter  of  from 
two  to  five  miles.     They  are  of  coral  formation,  and  none 

*  TMs  group  is  also  known  is  the  Gilbert  Islands. 


402  CLIMATE    AND    PRODUCTIONS.  [1841. 

of  them  rise  more  than  twenty-five  feet  above  the  ocean. 
The  soil  is  but  a  few  inches  in  depth,  and  is  composed  of 
coral  sand  and  vegetable  mould  :  it  is  exceedingly  produc- 
tive, however,  both  in  its  natural  state,  and  when  cultivated. 
Small  pieces  of  pumice,  that  have  probably  drifted  on  the 
islands,  are  found  in  considerable  abundance,  and  are  pounded 
up  and  used  as  a  manure. 

Bread-fruit  trees  are  seen  on  the  islands  north  of  the 
equator,  but  not  on  those  south  of  it.  The  cocoa  and  the 
pandanus  are  very  plenty,  and  the  former  is  cultivated  by 
the  natives,  the  trees  being  fenced  in,  and  pounded  pumice 
mixed  with  the  soil  at  the  roots.  On  some  of  the  islands 
there  is  a  great  scarcity  of  shrubbery,  the  ground  being 
covered  only  with  a  scanty  growth  of  dry  grass  (sida)  ;  but 
on  others,  dense  thickets  of  underbrush  are  scattered  amid 
the  clumps  of  pandanus  trees  and  cocoas.  The  pisonia, 
tournefortia,  cordia,  boerhavia,  urticse,  mangrove,  scaevola, 
ficus,  and  hibiscus,  are  quite  common,  though  they  are 
generally  small  in  comparison  with  the  specimens  found  on 
other  islands.  There  are  two  varieties  of  taro,  and  two  of 
yams.  One  species  of  taro  {arum  cordifolium),  called  by 
the  natives  pdipoi,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  deep  trenches 
excavated  for  the  purpose.  These  are  often  placed  near  the 
lagoons,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  narrow  embank- 
ment, in  order  that  the  water  may  percolate  through  the 
coral  sand.  The  api  is  also  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
Purslane  is  abundant,  and  is  much  eaten  in  seasons  of 
scarcity.  There  is  also  a  bush,  bearing  a  fruit  resembling 
the  gooseberry,  which  the  natives  call  teiparu. 

The  climate  of  these  islands  is  delightful.  The  heat  is 
of  a  high  temperature,  but  not  as  oppressive  as  might  be 
expected.  There  are  no  sudden  changes,  and  the  range  of 
the  thermometer  is  limited.  Earthquakes,  in  which  the 
oscillations  are  rapid  and  powerful,  occasionally  occur,  and 
violent  gales  from  the  south-west  are  not  uncommon.  From 
October  to  April  there  are  frequent  rains;  but  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year  the  weather  is  fine,  the  air  is  pure 


1841.]  POPULATION.  403 

and  elastic,  the  sky  is  rarely  mottled  with  clouds,  and 
showers  and  sunshine  agreeably  alternate  with  each  other 
In  consequence  of  the  equability  of  the  climate,  the  inhabi- 
tants enjoy  remarkable  health,  and  suffer  from  but  few 
diseases  except  those  of  a  cutaneous  character. 

Rats  in  great  numbers  infest  the  islands.  The  other  quad- 
rupeds are  a  few  dogs  and  cats.  No  land  birds  were  seen  by 
the  American  vessels,  but  white  terns,  golden  plovers,  noddies, 
curlews,  turnstones,  and  tropic-birds,  are  very  common. 
Whales,  sharks,  Crustacea  of  different  kinds,  biche  de  mer, 
and  numerous  edible  fish  of  the  smaller  varieties,  abound  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  group,  and  all  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants. 
Whales  are  often  killed  when  they  get  aground  on  the  shoals 
by  the  natives  with  their  spears.  Sharks  are  caught  by  drop- 
ping pieces  of  bait  alongside  a  canoe,  and  when  they  rush  for- 
ward to  seize  them,  throwing  a  noose  over  their  heads.  Small 
fish  are  taken  with  scoop-nets,  seines,  hooks  and  lines,  and 
traps  made  of  withes  and  resembling  eel-pots  ;  and  they  are 
also  driven  in  shoals  into  large  stone  weirs  or  pens. 

These  islands  are  densely  populated  ;  the  whole  number  of 
inhabitants  being  estimated  at  sixty  thousand,  of  which 
Drummond's  Island  alone  contains  about  ten  thousand.  Their 
dialect  differs  essentially  from  that  of  the  Samoan  Group,  but 
preserves  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  great  Polynesian 
root  from  which  the  various  tongues  are  derived.  Their 
features  are  small,  but  strongly  marked,  and  indicate  clearly 
their  Malay  origin.*     They  are  of  middle  size,  the  men  rarely 

*  The  natives  of  these  islands  have  a  tradition  that  the  first  inhabitants  came 
from  Barness,  or  Baneba,  an  island  said  to  lie  to  the  south-west,  in  two  canoes ; 
that  they  were  subsequently  joined  by  other  persons,  arriving  from  Amoi,  an 
island  lying  to  the  south-east,  also  in  two  canoes ;  and  that  after  they  had  lived 
together  in  harmony  for  one  or  two  generations,  the  male  members  of  the  two 
parties  had  a  quarrel,  in  which  those  who  had  arrived  first  were  successful  and 
killed  off  all  their  opponents,  after  which  they  made  wives  of  their  women,  who 
were  better  looking,  and  had  fairer  complexions,  than  the  others.  Amoi  is  sup- 
posed by  Captain  Wilkes,  (Narrative,  vol.  v.  p.  82.)  and  with  good  reason,  to  be 
the  Samoan  Group;  and  he  conjectures  that  Baneba  may  refer  to  Boneba,  or 
Ascension  Island,  one  of  the  Caroline  Group,  although  its  position  does  not 
correspond  with  the  assigned  locality.  Bidera  and  Bouka,  of  the  Solomon  Archi- 
pelago, at  the  south-west,  and  Banda  and  Borneo  (the  latter  not  unlike  Barness), 


404  BEAUTY    OF    THE    WOMEN.  [1841 

exceeding  five  feet  eight  inches  in  height ;  slender,  but  well 
proportioned  ;  and  lithe  and  active  in  their  movements.  Their 
cheek  bones  are  prominent,  and  their  noses  slightly  aquiline. 
They  have  large  and  bright  black  eyes.  Their  hair  is  also 
dark,  and  unusually  fine  and  glossy.  Their  lips  are  full,  and 
their  teeth  small  and  even,  but  often  decayed.  Their  com- 
plexion, in  general,  is  a  shade  or  two  darker  than  that  of  the 
Tahitian. 

The  young  women  are  models  of  personal  beauty,  so  far  as 
mere  softness  of  contour,  and  shapeliness  of  limb,  are  concerned. 
Their  figures  are  slight,  but  as  harmonious  in  their  propor- 
tions as  the  finest  statuary.  Their  full  orbed  eyes  are  alike 
beautiful,  whether  glowing  with  desire,  or  kindling  with  anger 
or  jealousy.  Long,  glossy  ringlets,  glistening  like  silver  in 
the  sunlight,  and  of  ebon  darkness  in  the  shadow,  float  in 
ample  profusion  down  their  finely-rounded  shoulders,  and  over 
the  softly-swelling  bust.  Their  forms  taper  gracefully  to- 
wards the  waist,  and  are  supported  on  limbs  turned  with 
great  neatness  and  delicacy.  These  charms,  too,  are  not 
always 

"  veiled  and  curtained  from  the  sight 
Of  the  gross  world." 

They  rarely  wear  any  clothing  whatsoever,  and  the  simple 
iriri  seems  to  be  put  on  rather  for  ornament  than  conceal- 
ment. 

But  the  mothers  of  these  Polynesian  sylphs  are  as  uncouth, 
not  to  say  hideous,  as  their  daughters  are  handsome.  The 
wrinkles  of  age  appear  prematurely,  and  their  features  soon 
become  distorted.  This  cannot  be  produced  by  out-door  labor, 
for  that  is  performed  almost  entirely  by  the  men,  but  is  prob- 
ably owing  in  great  part  to  the  common  practice  of  producing 
abortions.  A  woman  seldom  has  more  than  two  children,  and 
never  more  than  three ;  when  she  discovers  herself  to  be  en- 
ceinte for  the  third  or  fourth  time,  the  fetus  is  destroyed  by 

in  a  westerly  direction,  are  the  only  other  islands  lying  in  this  part  of  the  Pa- 
cific, whose  names  are  in  any  respect  similar. 


1841.]  CHARACTER    OF    THE    INHABITANTS.  405 

a  midwife,  by  external  pressure  upon  the  womb.  This  prac- 
tice is  not  looked  upon  with  the  least  abhorrence,  and  unmar- 
ried women  always  avoid  having  children  in  this  way.  In- 
fanticide, however,  is  never  known  to  occur.  Indeed,  parents 
are  very  fond  of  their  children,  and  indulge  them  in  every 
whim  and  caprice. 

The  inhabitants  of  Makin,  or  Pitt's  Island,  which  lies 
furthest  to  the  north,  differ  in  some  respects  from  the  natives 
of  the  other  islands,  in  their  personal  appearance.  Instances  of 
corpulence  are  not  rare  among  the  latter,  but  the  former  look 
much  like  over-fed  porkers.  Both  men  and  women  are  ex- 
ceedingly gross  ;  but  they  are  as  good-natured  and  inoffensive 
as  they  are  fat,  and  vessels  stopping  at  the  island  are  likely 
to  meet  with  much  better  treatment  than  among  the  southern 
islands.  Their  faces  are  more  oval,  and  they  are  somewhat 
lighter  and  fairer  in  complexion  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
other  members  of  the  group. 

With  the  exception  of  the  natives  residing  on  Pitt's  Island, 
the  Kingsmill  Islanders  are  all  fierce  and  warlike  in  disposi- 
tion. There  are  frequent  bloody  encounters  between  the 
inhabitants  of  rival  towns,  and  the  different  islands.  They 
are  naturally  intelligent,  cheerful  and  sociable,  and  fond  of 
mirth  and  merriment,  though  they  sometimes  give  way  to 
fits  of  sulkiness  and  despondency,  and  commit  suicide  by  hang- 
ing themselves  on  trees.  Among  their  own  people  they  are 
both  hospitable  and  generous,  but  treacherous  and  deceitful 
in  their  intercourse  with  the  whites.  They  are  also  dishonest 
and  thievish,  inclined  to  be  jealous,  and  very  passionate. 
They  are  cruel  and  reckless  of  human  life,  but  pay  unusual 
respect  to  the  dead, — washing  their  bodies  and  anointing  them 
with  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  then  burying  them  in  the  ground  under 
their  houses,  with  the  head  to  the  east,  or  wrapping  them  in 
mats,  till  the  flesh  decays,  when  the  remains  are  exhumed,  and 
the  skulls  preserved  with  great  care.  When  they  kill  an 
enemy  they  dig  out  his  teeth  and  string  them  in  necklaces; 
the  hair  is  also  clipped  off  and  twisted  into  wreaths,  cords,  and 
bands ;  and  of  the  bones  various  instruments  are  made. 


406  SOCIAL  DIVISIONS.  [1841. 

Chastity  is  not  considered  a  virtue  in  either  sex,  and  the 
want  of  it  by  an  unmarried  woman  is  esteemed  no  reproach. 
Fathers  and  brothers  freely  offer  their  daughters  and  sisters, 
io  the  crews  of  vessels  stopping  at  the  islands,  for  purposes  of 
prostitution.  Of  their  wives,  however,  they  are  more  chary  ; 
and  it  is  said  that  in  the  northern,  or  Pitt's  Island,  the  men 
sew  them  up  in  mats  so  that  they  cannot  give  way  to  temp- 
tation. 

The  male  population  are  divided  into  three  classes:  the 
neas,  or  omatas,  who  are  the  principal  chiefs ;  -the  katokas, 
who  are  the  landholders,  not  of  noble  birth  ;  and  the  kawas, 
or  slaves.  On  some  of  the  islands  there  are  kings,  but  the 
rank  is  mainly  nominal,  though  tribute  is  paid  to  them  by  the 
several  towns  over  which  their  sway  extends.  Each  town  is 
separate  from  the  other  in  its  municipal  government.  Publio 
councils  of  all  the  different  estates  are  held  ;  but  the  political 
power  and  authority  are  mainly  wielded  by  the  neas,  or 
omatas,  who  are  all  of  noble  birth  as  well  as  landholders. 
When  a  council  is  to  be  held,  the  oldest  chief,  who  always 
presides  at  the  meeting,  sends  out  his  messengers  to  summon 
the  inhabitants  by  blowing  conch  shells.  No  regular  vote  is 
ever  taken  at  these  assemblages,  but  the  opinion  of  the  majority 
decides  the  subject  matter  under  consideration.  The  dis- 
tinction between  those  of  high  birth,  and  the  ignobly  born, 
prevails  throughout  the  islands,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  group 
the  class  of  katokas  is  not  recognized. 

Slaves  are  regarded  and  treated  as  mere  personal  chattels. 
The  chiefs  have  absolute  power  over  their  families  and  kawas. 
All  minor  crimes  are  punished  by  the  person  injured  or  ag- 
grieved, or  by  his  relatives ;  but  more  serious  offences  are 
brought  before  the  council.  Rank  and  property  are  heredi- 
tary. The  son  of  a  chief  by  the  mother  of  the  highest  rank 
succeeds  to  his  father's  position.  Where  there  is  no  inequality 
of  birth,  the  eldest  son  either  has  twice  as  much  land  as  the 
others,  or  succeeds  to  all  the  property,  subject  to  the  incum- 
brance of  supporting  and  maintaining  his  brothers  and  sisters, 


IS41.]  dress.  407 

who  are  obliged  to  work  for  him,  and  the  latter  cannot  marry- 
without  his  consent. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  go  entirely  naked,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  conical  cap  of  braided  pandanus  leaves  on  their  heads, 
and  the  remainder  have  very  little  clothing.  Among  the  men 
this  consists  of  a  maro,  covering  merely  a  part  of  the  back 
and  abdomen,  and  a  small  oblong  mat  with  a  slit  in  the  centre, 
which  is  put  on  over  the  head  like  a  poncho.  The  appropri- 
ate dress  of  the  women  is  called  iriri,  and  consists  of  a  fine 
and  beautiful  fringe  made  of  the  softest  cocoa-nut  leaves  split 
into  narrow  strips ;  it  is  about  a  foot  in  width,  and  is  dipped 
in  cocoa-nut  oil  to  render  it  perfectly  flexible ;  it  is  also  dyed 
and  perfumed,  and  is  often  quite  ornamental,  though  com- 
monly worn  so  high  up  on  the  abdomen,  like  the  maro  of  the 
men,  that  it  affords  but  little  concealment  to  the  person.  Of 
ornaments  both  sexes  are  very  fond.  They  often  wear  a  white 
ovula  shell  attached  to  a  wreath  about  the  neck,  made  of  the 
pith  of  the  scsBvola,  and  hanging  down  over  the  bosom.  In 
the  lobes  of  their  ears  they  insert  shells  and  strings  of  leaves. 
They  have  also  necklaces  of  beads  and  shells,  of  shark's  teeth 
and  small  bones,  and  of  human  teeth  or  hair.  Their  beads 
are  made  of  the  cocoa-nut  and  shell.  Girdles  of  hair  are  like- 
wise worn  about  their  bodies.  Tattooing,  too,  is  general 
among  the  higher  classes,  but  not  permitted  to  slaves :  it  is 
considered  essential,  in  order  to  enable  the  spirit  after  death 
to  be  happy  in  Elysium,  and  is  performed  by  professional 
operators;  the  ornaments  usually  consist  of  short,  oblique 
lines,  in  parallel  and  perpendicular  rows,  at  greater  or  less 
distances  apart,  descending  from  the  neck  as  low  as  the  knees, 
and  sometimes  to  the  ankles.  The  women  are  tattooed  in  the 
same  manner,  but  not  so  much,  and  they  have  frequently  a 
circle  of  spots  surrounding  the  navel.  The  men  do  not  shave 
off  their  beards  and  moustaohes,  but  they  are  not  generally 
of  very  luxuriant  growth. 

War  is  the  favorite  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
southern  islands.  They  have  weapons  both  of  offence  and 
defence.     The  former  consist  of  spears,  clubs,  and  swords. 


408  SUPERSTITIONS.  [1841 

The  handles  of  the  swords,  the  shafts  of  the  spears,  and  the 
clubs,  are  made  of  cocoa-nut  wood.  Shark's  teeth  are  in- 
serted in  the  sword  handles  and  fastened  with  gum,  and  barbs 
for  the  spears  are  also  made  of  them.  For  defensive  purpo- 
ses, they  have  a  sort  of  cuirass,  like  an  ancient  shirt  of  mail, 
covering  the  body  as  far  down  as  the  haunches,  and  rising 
above  the  back  of  the  head  from  three  to  four  inches :  this  piece 
of  armor  is  drawn  on  over  the  head,  there  being  holes  for  the 
arms ;  and  it  affords  complete  protection  against  the  native 
weapons,  as  it  is  nearly  half  an  inch  thick,  and  is  made  of 
the  fibres  of  the  husk  of  the  coeoa-nut  closely  matted  together. 
They  have,  also,  a  similar  defence  for  the  arms,  and  cuishes 
and  greaves  for  the  thighs  and  legs,  made  of  netted  sennit ; 
and  the  head  is  defended  by  a  helmet  consisting  of  the  skin 
of  the  porcupine  fish,  with  the  tail  sticking  upwards  like  a 
crest. 

When  not  at  war,  the  men  spena  most  of  their  time  in 
taking  care  of  their  taro  beds  and  yam  plantations,  and  culti- 
vating the  cocoa  and  pandanus  trees ;  or  in  building  houses  and 
canoes,  taking  fish,  and  fashioning  their  tools  and  weapons. 
Both  sexes  pay  considerable  attention  to  personal  cleanliness, 
and  wash  their  bodies  daily,  and  anoint  them  with  cocoa-nut 
oil.  They  rise  at  daylight,  and  after  their  morning  toilet  is 
performed,  the  men  go  out  to  work  while  the  women  pursue 
their  in-door  occupations,  such  as  preparing  food,  and  making 
mats,  sails,  baskets,  maros  and  iriris.  When  the  heat  be- 
comes too  oppressive,  which  it  usually  does  about  nine  o'clock, 
out-door  labor  is  suspended,  and  the  first  meal  during  the 
day  is  then  eaten.  Sleeping,  chatting,  and  light  occupations 
inside  of  their  houses,  now  occupy  the  time  until  four  o'clock, 
when  the  rays  of  the  sun  begin  to  lose  their  power,  and  the 
men  again  sally  out  to  continue  the  labors  of  the  morning. 

They  have  several  divinities,  the  chief  one  of  which  is 
Wainangin,  or  Tabu-eriki,  who  is  worshipped  in  the  form  of 
a  coral  stone,  surrounded  with  the  leaves  of  the  cocoa,  that 
are  always  changed  when  they  begin  to  wither.  Their  prin- 
cipal female  deity  is  Itivini :  she  is  worshipped  in  a  small 


1841.]  MARRIAGES.  409 

circle,  three  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  coral  stones,  and  cov- 
ered with  white  gravel ;  in  the  centre  of  the  ring  is  a  cocoa- 
nut,  which  is  bound  round  with  leaves  when  prayers  are  of- 
fered up  to  the  goddess.  Almost  every  family  of  distinction 
has  one  of  the  stones  typical  of  Wainangin,  but  some  of  the 
inhabitants  do  not  recognize  him,  and  worship  birds,  fish,  an- 
imals, and  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  represented  by  their 
skulls,  which  are  religiously  preserved.  Each  family,  too, 
in  the  higher  ranks,  has  an  iboya,  or  priest,  to  offer  up  prayers, 
and  receive  and  eat  the  food  presented  to  the  tutelar  deity. 
After  death,  according  to  the  belief  of  the  natives,  their  spirits 
ascend  into  the  air — those  of  the  children  being  carried  by 
their  female  relatives — and  are  there  tossed  about  for  some 
time  by  the  winds,  until  finally,  if  of  high  rank,  they  are 
wafted  to  Kainakaki,  or  Elysium ;  but  the  shade  of  the  poor 
kawa,  or  the  person  who  is  not  tattooed  (except  in  some  parts 
of  the  group),  is  intercepted,  and  doomed  by  a  large  giantess, 
called  Baine.  The  Kainakaki  of  the  natives  is  supposed  to 
be  in  the  island  of  Tavaira,  one  of  the  group,  where  there  are 
a  number  of  curious  oblong  mounds,  upwards  of  twenty  feet 
high. 

On  a  reef  between  the  islets  of  Kuria  and  Onebka,  is  a 
large  flat  coral  stone,  which  the  natives  suppose  to  represent 
another  female  deity  called  Itituapea  ;  and  whenever  they 
pass  that  way  they  invoke  the  protection  of  the  goddess,  and 
bestow  upon  her  a  portion  of  their  food,  if  they  chance  to 
have  any  with  them. 

Children  are  named  by  the  priest  as  soon  as  they  are  born  ; 
but  if  they  are  soon  taken  sick,  another  name  is  substituted 
for  the  first,  in  the  hope  that  it  will  prove  more  fortunate  to 
the  possessor.  Females  are  betrothed  immediately  after  their 
birth,  or  at  a  very  early  age.  Polygamy  is  practiced  by  all 
the  males  of  high  rank,  or  who  can  afford  to  keep  up  a  large 
harem.  Some  of  the  principal  chiefs  have  from  twenty  to 
fifty  wives,  and  they  are  pretty  sure  to  monopolize  all  tho 
comeliest  damsels  in  their  vicinity.  The  Jcawas,  however, 
are  denied  the  privilege  of  marrying,  except  with  the  consent 

IS 


4-0  AMUSEMENTS.  [1841. 

of  their  masters,  though  they  sometimes  form  temporary 
connections  with  the  unmarried  females  in  the  group. 

Where  a  female  is  betrothed  at  her  birth,  no  ceremony  of 
marriage  is  requisite.  In  other  cases  the  friends  of  the 
parties,  who  are  left  to  choose  for  themselves,  as  women  are 
not  esteemed  articles  of  traffic,  assemble  at  the  house  of  the 
bride's  father,  all  clad  in  their  gayest  attire.  The  couple  are 
seated  on  a  mat  in  the  midst  of  the  company  ;  the  priest  then 
presses  their  foreheads  together,  pours  a  little  cocoa-nut  oil 
over  their  heads,  and  sprinkles  their  faces  with  the  branch  of 
a  tree  dipped  in  water,  at  the  same  time  uttering  a  prayer 
for  their  happiness  and  prosperity.  The  friends  now  offer 
their  congratulations  and  rub  noses — the  latter  being  their 
customary  mode  of  salutation.  The  ceremony  being  com- 
pleted, feasting  and  dancing  succeed,  which  are  commonly 
kept  up  till  a  late  hour  in  the  evening,  and  for  several  days 
in  succession.  On  the  third  day,  the  bridegroom  takes  his 
,vife  to  his  own  habitation,  and  for  the  first  ten  days  the  house 
where  she  lives  is  screened  with  mats,  and  she  remains  at  home 
to  receive  the  calls  of  her  friends.  Both  parties  are  expected  to 
contribute  either  land  or  household  goods,  or  both,  to  the  com- 
mon stock  ;  but  no  questions  are  asked  by  the  suitor,  in  regard 
to  the  dowry  of  an  intended  wife,  of  her  parents,  till  after  the 
consummation  of  the  marriage,  and  sometimes  not  until 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  the  first  child. 

Playing  at  foot-ball,  sailing  miniature  canoes,  swimming 
in  the  surf  with  a  board  like  that  of  the  Hawaiians,  and  fly- 
ing kites  made  of  split  pandanus  leaves  drawn  over  a  frame, 
are  the  principal  amusements  of  the  men.  The  other  sex 
join  them  in  singing  and  dancing,  of  which  they  are  extrav- 
agantly fond.  Most  of  their  dances  resemble  those  of  other 
Polynesians,  consisting  of  violent  motions  of  the  bodies,  rock- 
ing themselves  to  and  fro,  and  clapping  their  hands  together 
and  slapping  them  upon  their  thighs.  They  have,  however, 
a  peculiar  dance  that  consists  of  a  combination  of  fencing  and 
singing  with  dancing.  They  often  collect  in  large  parties 
for  dances,  intermingled  with  songs,  in  the  evenings,  and 


1841.]  houses.  411 

protract  their  sports  to  a  late  hour  by  the  light  of  the  moon 
or  of  a  large  fire.  They  have  feasts,  either  public  or  private, 
quite  often,  but  the  only  periodical  one  is  at  the  full  of  the 
moon. 

The  dwelling  houses  of  the  natives  are  peculiarly  constructed. 
They  are  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  ordinarily  about  sixteen 
feet  wide  and  twenty  feet  long.  The  frame  work  consists  of 
cocoa-nut  posts,  and  beams,  supporting  high  sloping  roofs, 
which  descend  from  the  ridge  pole  to  within  three  feet  of  the 
ground,  and  are  thatched  with  pandanus  leaves.  At  the 
gable  ends  the  roof  is  perpendicular  for  about  one  third  of  the 
descent,  and  then  slopes  off  as  at  the  sides.  The  ridge  pole 
is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  above  the  ground,  and  the 
rafters  and  cross-pieces  are  small  poles  only  an  inch  or  two  in 
diameter.  This  main  building — for  there  are  two  stories — 
rests  on  large  beams  of  cocoa-nut  wood,  which  are  supported 
by  four  round  posts  of  the  same  material,  one  at  each  corner, 
and  made  perfectly  smooth  so  as  to  prevent  the  rats  from 
climbing  up.  These  posts  are  but  three  feet  high,  and  within 
them  is  the  basement  of  the  house,  which  is  used  exclusively 
for  sleeping.  Tfce  upper  apartment,  where  all  the  valuable 
goods  and  chattels  are  kept,  is  floored  with  pandanus  boards 
resting  on  cross-beams.  The  sides  of  the  houses  are  inclosed 
with  mats  or  thatching,  and  they  are  entered  by  a  square 
hole  that  serves  the  purpose  of  a  door. 

Besides  the  private  dwellings  of  the  inhabitants,  each  town 
has  a  mariapa,  or  council-house,  which  is  built  like  the 
former,  but  of  much  larger  dimensions,  and  frequently  sup- 
ported on  blocks  of  coral.  There  are  atamas,  too,  where 
the  chiefs  receive  company  and  the  natives  meet  to  exchange 
their  commodities  :  these  are  constructed  after  the  same 
general  fashion,  but  have  no  upper  apartment.  In  some  parts 
of  the  group  the  towns  are  surrounded  by  pickets  and  pali- 
sades of  cocoa-nut  wood  ;  and  within  the  principal  inclosure, 
there  are  smaller  ones  containing  ten  or  twelve  houses  be- 
longing to  the  same  family,  as  in  the  pas  of  New  Zealand. 

Baskets,  made  of  twigs  or  leaves  woven  firmly  together, 


412  POOD   AND   DRINKS.  [1841. 

fans,  screens,  mats,  cocoa-nut  shells,  wooden  bowls  and 
troughs,  spoons  fashioned  out  of  human  ribs,  and  the  skulls 
of  their  enemies,  used  as  drinking  vessels,  are  the  principal 
articles  of  furniture  in  the  habitations  of  the  Kingsmill 
Islanders.  Some  of  their  mats  are  very  beautiful,  the  bright 
yellow  of  the  young  pandanus  leaves  contrasting  finely  with  the 
dark  brown  of  the  older  ones,  and  the  clear  white  of  those  that 
have  been  bleached,  with  which  they  are  interwoven.  They 
always  have  an  abundance  of  conch  shells  in  their  houses, 
and  they  use  the  tridachna  gig-as,  which  are  found  here  of 
an  enormous  size,  for  troughs  to  catch  rain  water. 

For  cooking,  the  natives  have  stone  ovens  built  above  the 
ground,  and  they  roast  the  bread-fruit  on  hot  stones.  Their 
food  consists  chiefly  of  fish  of  all  kinds,  from  a  whale  to  a 
sea-slug,  of  the  cocoa  and  pandanus  nuts,  bread-fruit  and  taro. 
Yams  and  purslane  are  eaten  when  other  articles  of  food  are 
scarce.  Of  the  pandanus-nut  they  make  a  preparation  which 
will  keep  for  several  years  ;  the  edible  portions  of  the  nut  are 
first  pounded  to  the  consistence  of  dough,  and  then  baked  in  an 
oven,  after  which  they  are  reduced  to  powder  and  fashioned 
into  rolls,  or  karapapa.  The  taro,  too,  is  often  baked  hard, 
and  grated  to  a  powder,  which  is  dried  and  formed  into  rolls, 
called  kabuibui,  which  keep  for  a  long  time.  Another  prep- 
aration, called  manam,  is  made  of  baked  taro  and  cocoa-nut, 
grated  fine,  and  then  mixed  together  and  rolled  up  in  large 
balls.  They  have  no  intoxicating  drinks,  but  they  procure  a 
toddy,  called  karaca,  from  the  spathes  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  the 
formation  of  the  fruit  being  prevented  by  tying  a  bandage  of 
sennit  tightly  around  the  spathe,  and  then  cutting  off  the  end 
of  the  latter.  When  this  sap  is  first  obtained  it  is  like  the  milk 
of  the  young  cocoa-nut,  but  it  soon  ferments  and  forms  a 
pleasant  acidulous  beverage.  Of  the  karaca,  a  molasses  is 
made  called  kamoimoi,  by  boiling  the  former  down  in  cocoa- 
nut  shells  placed  on  hot  stones,  which  in  color  and  flavor  re- 
sembles that  obtained  from  the  cane.  The  kamoimoi  is  eaten 
with   the   preparations   of  pandanus,  bread-fruit,  taro,  and 


1841.]  canoes.  413 

cocoa-nut,  and  when  mixed  with  water  forms  the  common 
drink  at  their  feasts,  and  is  called  karave. 

Since  the  natives  have  had  intercourse  with  the  whites, 
they  have  become  exceedingly  fond  of  tobacco,  which  they 
call  tebake,  and  chew  and  swallow  it  as  if  it  were  really 
delicious. 

The  canoes  belonging  to  these  natives  differ  from  those 
seen  in  the  neighboring  groups,  and  are  quite  ingeniously 
built.  They  have  frames,  about  which  strips  of  board,  usu- 
ally of  cocoa-nut  wood,  are  arranged  in  nearly  the  same 
manner  as  the  planking  of  large  vessels.  The  boards  are 
sewed  together  with  sennit,  and  have  strips  of  pandanus 
leaves  inserted  in  the  seams  to  prevent  leakage.  The  canoes 
are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  two  or  three  feet  deep, 
and  from  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet  wide.  They  have  small 
outriggers  and  narrow  platforms.  The  masts  rake  consider- 
ably, and  carry  sails  of  moderate  size  and  a  triangular  form. 
The  natives  manage  their  craft  with  great  dexterity  when 
under  sail ;  but  their  paddles  are  miserable  things,  consisting 
merely  of  a  piece  of  cocoa-nut  board  or  tortoise  shell,  per- 
haps six  inches  square,  attached  to  a  round  stick,  and  they 
are  not  over  expert  in  the  use  of  them.  Near  most  of  the 
towns  there  are  wharfs  built  of  coral  blocks,  for  the  conve- 
nience of  landing  from  the  canoes. 

Hatchets  and  adzes,  roughly  made  of  bone  or  stone,  and 
knives  and  saws  of  shark's  teeth,  are  the  principal  tools  of  the 
natives,  but  they  are  used  with  much  skill  and  ingenuity,  as 
is  evinced  by  the  buildings,  canoes,  and  other  articles  man- 
ufactured with  them. 

(6.)  While  lying  off  the  town  of  Utiroa,  on  Drummond's 
Island,  a  seaman  belonging  to  one  of  the  American  vessels 
was  inveigled  away  by  some  means  from  the  party  with 
whom  he  had  landed,  and  was  supposed  to  have  been  mur- 
dered. Repeated  demands  for  the  restoration  of  the  missing 
man  were  made,  but  without  success, — the  natives  assuming 
a  blustering  appearance,  and  displaying  themselves  clad  in 
their  armor  and  with  their  weapons.     Captain  Hudson  there- 


414  LOSS    OF   THE    PEACOCK.  [1841. 

upon  sent  a  party  ashore  under  Lieutenant  "Walker,  who 
drove  the  savages  from  the  beach,  killing  twelve  of  their  num- 
ber, and  set  fire  to  and  destroyed  the  town. 

The  survey  of  the  Kingsmill  Group  was  not  completed  till 
the  close  of  the  month  of  April,  and  the  American  vessels 
then  steered  to  the  north.  On  arriving  among  the  Radack, 
or  Mulgrave  Islands,  Captain  Hudson  found  that  the  time 
specified  for  his  absence  from  the  rest  of  the  Squadron  was 
fast  drawing  to  a  close.  He  therefore  bore  away  for  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  on  the  14th  of  June  arrived  off  the 
port  of  Honolulu.  On  the  21st  instant,  he  sailed  for  the  Co- 
lumbia river.  Cape  Disappointment  was  made  by  the  Pea- 
cock on  the  afternoon  of  the  17th  of  July,  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day  Captain  Hudson  attempted  to  enter  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  being  governed  by  the  directions  obtained  from  the 
commander  of  a  merchant  vessel  by  Captain  Wilkes,  which 
were  supposed  to  be  reliable  but  unfortunately  proved  decep- 
tive. The  Flying  Fish  entered  in  safety,  but  the  Peacock, 
which  preceded  it,  struck  on  the  bar,  amid  the  raging  breakers, 
shortly  after  she  commenced  standing  in,  and  in  a  few  hours 
was  made  a  complete  wreck, — the  officers  and  crew,  with  the 
ship's  papers  and  other  light  articles,  being  with  great  diffi- 
culty saved  in  the  small  boats,  and  landed  at  Astoria.  Hav- 
ing completed  his  examinations  in  northern  Oregon,  Captain 
Wilkes  joined  Captain  Hudson  early  in  August.  The  Vin- 
cennes  was  now  dispatched  to  San  Francisco  to  survey  the 
Sacramento  river,  and  the  officers  and  crew  of  the  Peacock 
were  transferred  to  an  American  merchant  brig,  purchased 
for  the  occasion,  to  which  the  name  of  "  Oregon"  was  given. 
After  surveying  and  examining  the  Columbia  river  and  valley 
as  critically  as  time  would  permit,  Captain  Wilkes  proceeded 
down  the  coast  with  the  other  vessels  of  the  Squadron,  and 
on  the  19th  of  October  anchored  beside  the  Vincennes  in  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

(1.)  Oregon.  Physical  Geography.— (2.)  Population.  Towns. — (3.)  Rivers  and 
Harbors. — (4.)  Climate.  Productions.  Zoology. — (5.)  California. — (6.)  Gold 
Discovery.  Mineral  Resources. — (7.)  Character  of  the  Population.  Rapid 
Settlement  of  the  Country. — (8.)  Geographical  Description.  Rivers.  Har- 
bors. Towns.— (9.)  Animal  and  Vegetable  Kingdom. — (10.)  Departure  of 
the  American  Squadron.     Arrival  at  Manilla. 

(1.)  While  the  diplomatists  of  Downing  Street  and  Penn- 
sylvania Avenue,  and  the  legislators  of  St.  Stephen's  and 
the  American  Capitol,  were  unsuccessfully  engaged,  through 
a  long  series  of  years,  but  with  greater  or  less  intervals,  in 
the  attempt  to  terminate  the  qualified  joint  occupancy  of 
the  Oregon  territory  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
and  to  establish  a  definite  boundary  line  between  their  respec- 
tive jurisdictions,  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  country  was 
being  pretty  surely  fixed,  by  the  immigration,  subsequent  to 
1840,  of  great  numbers  of  American  settlers, — some  of  whom 
were  sent  out  under  the  auspices  of  the  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  and  the  board  of  missions  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  and  others  were  attracted  by  the  glowing  reports 
which  had  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  regard  to  the 
rich  tracts  of  farming  land  lying  in  the  great  basin  of  the 
Columbia  river. 

But  all  the  numerous  vexed  questions  in  difference,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  conflicting  claims  based  upon  the  discoveries 
of  Drake,  Cook,  Gray,  and  Vancouver,  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase, and  the  explorations  of  Lewis  and  Clarke — all  which 
had  been  rendered  but  the  more  intricate  by  protracted  nego- 
tiation— were  finally  settled  in  amity,  by  the  treaty  of  1846, 
under  which  the  northern  boundary  line  of  the  United  States 


416  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  [1841. 

was  extended  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  west,  along  the 
49th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  to  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound, 
and  then  through  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca  to  the  Pacific- 
ocean, — with  the  further  stipulation,  that  the  navigation  of 
the  Columbia  river  below  49°  should  be  free  to  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  during  the  continuance  of  their  charter. 

It  is  computed  that  there  are  from  three  hundred  to  three 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles  contained  in  the 
area,  or  tract  of  country  known  as  Oregon  territory,  lying 
between  the  boundary  before  mentioned  and  California,  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific.  This  extensive  territory 
is  divided  into  three  belts  or  sections,  rising  like  terraces 
one  above  the  other,  by  different  ranges  of  mountains  run- 
ning nearly  parallel  with  the  shore  of  the  Pacific.  The  coast 
section  is  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
wide,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Cascade  Range, 
which  is  continuous,  except  where  it  is  divided  by  the  chan- 
nels of  streams,  and  frequently  rises  into  tall  conical  peaks, 
from  nine  to  ten  thousand  feet  high,  whose  summits  are 
bathed  in  perpetual  snow.*  The  middle  section  lies  between 
the  Cascade  Range  and  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  is  of  ir- 
regular width,  varying  from  one  to  three  hundred  miles :  the 
Blue  Mountains  are  often  interrupted,  and  deviate  from  their 
usual  course,  the  spurs  sometimes  running  off,  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  the  general  direction,  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, beyond  which  are  occasional  detached  outliers.  Be- 
yond the  Blue  Mountains,  and  between  them  and  the  lofty 
barriers  of  the  Great  Cordillera,  which  tower  upward  to  the 
height  of  sixteen  thousand  feet,  is  the  third  or  eastern  sec- 
tion, whose  average  width  is  not  far  from  five  hundred  miles. 
Notwithstanding  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  here  a  continuous 
chain,  in  general,  the  long  reach,  trending  away  on  the  one 
side  to  the  frozen  regions  of  the  north,  and  on  the  other  to 
the  sunny  plateaus  of  Anahuac,  is  occasionally  interrupted 
by  passes  through  which  roads  are  practicable.     The  North 

*  The  line  of  perpetual  snow  in  this  latitude,  is  ahout  6500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  tea. 


1841.]  GEOLOGY.  417 

Pass,  discovered  by  Lewis  and  Clarke,  is  in  latitude  46°  30' 
N. ;  the  Middle  Pass  is  in  about  44°  30'  N. ;  and  the  South 
Pass,  which  was  made  known  by  Colonel  Fremont  and  is 
decidedly  the  best  of  the  three,  is  in  latitude  42°  30'  N., 
where  the  headwaters  of  the  north  fork  of  the  Platte  are 
separated  by  a  narrow  watershed  from  those  of  the  Snake 
river.  On  the  southern  border  of  the  territory  is  the  Kla- 
met  range,  running  from  east  to  west,  near  the  parallel  of 
42°  N.  latitude,  which  separates  it  from  California. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Cascade  Range  on  the  west,  the  soil  is 
well  adapted  to  raising  the  cereal  grains,  peas,  apples,  pears, 
and  other  hardy  fruits ;  but  much  the  greater  portion  of  the 
western  division  south  of  the  Columbia  is  occupied  by  low  prai- 
ries and  interval  lands  liable  to  inundations,  yet  possessing  a 
fine  soil  and  producing  heavy  burdens  of  the  richest  grass. 
The  valley  of  the  Willamette,  or  Multnomah  river,  in  this  sec- 
tion, contains  some  of  the  finest  land  in  Oregon,  and  for 
beauty  and  fertility  is  not  often  surpassed  in  the  older  states 
and  territories  of  the  American  Union.  North  of  the  Colum- 
bia, and  beyond  the  immediate  valley  of  the  river,  which  is 
also  well  calculated  for  grazing  though  very  liable  to  inunda- 
tions, the  country  is  rough  and  much  broken,  but  thickly 
covered  with  gigantic  forest  trees. 

The  soil  of  the  middle  section  is  a  sandy  loam,  very  light 
on  the  hills  and  only  fitted  for  grazing,  but  in  the  valleys 
there  is  a  large  mixture  of  alluvial  deposit.  The  eastern 
section,  between  the  Blue  and  Rocky  Mountains,  is  high, 
broken,  and  barren;  there  are  but  few  level  tracts,  which 
are  sparsely  timbered,  and,  where  not  rocky,  the  soil  is  light 
and  sandy.  But  the  desert  character  of  this  interior  basin 
should  not  be  allowed  to  cast  any  doubt  upon,  or  detract 
from,  the  capacity  of  the  western  portions  ;  for  though  they 
contain,  here  and  there,  a  few  barren  patches,  the  produc- 
tiveness of  their  extensive  tracts  of  prairie  and  interval  land, 
and  the  value  of  their  noble  forests,  must  be  sources  of  con- 
tinued wealth  and  prosperity  to  the  hardy  pioneers  who  have 
located  themselves  in  these  remote  regions. 

18* 


418  POPULATION.  [1841. 

In  fossils,  but  little  variety  is  presented.  Basalt  is  the 
principal  rock.  Granite,  limestone,  and  sandstone,  are  found 
in  small  quantities,  and  specimens  of  white  marble  have 
been  obtained  in  the  upper  country,  while  at  the  extreme 
north  freestone  is  abundant.  Appearances  would  indicate 
the  possession  of  vast  stores  of  mineral  wealth,  but  these 
are  deceptive.  Coal,  however,  exists  in  great  abundance  in 
the  Cascade  Range,  and  iron  and  platina  have  been  dis- 
covered, though  they  cannot  be  said  to  abound. 

(2.)  In  1845,  the  Indian  population  of  Oregon  was  estimated 
to  be  about  twenty-seven  thousand,  and  that  of  the  whites 
at  from  three  to  five  thousand.  The  numbers  of  the  former, 
since  that  time,  as  in  previous  years,  have  been  rapidly 
diminishing,  mainly  from  disease,  though  the  aggregate  has 
probably  been  nearly  kept  up  by  the  white  immigration. 
The  principal  Indian  tribes,  commencing  at  the  north,  are 
the  Spokans,  Flatheads,  Nisqually  Indians,  Cayuses,  Nez 
Perces,  Callapooah  Indians,  and  Shoshones.  Most  of  these 
tribes  have  generally  been  on  good  terms  with  the  white 
settlers,  and  some  of  them  have  been  partially  civilized,  have 
abandoned  their  roving  habits,  and  commenced  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil ;  but  the  lawless  bands  of  Cayuses  roam- 
ing through  the  upper  valley  of  the  Columbia,  were  for  a 
long  time  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  the  parties  of  im- 
migrants arriving  in  the  country,  and  the  latter  were  re- 
peatedly attacked  by  them.  In  Noyember,  1847,  the  Pres- 
byterian Mission  at  Walla-Walla  was  attacked  by  these  sav- 
ages, fourteen  persons  were  killed  and  sixty-one  wounded,  and 
all  the  houses  at  the  station  burnt  down  or  destroyed.  Im- 
mediately upon  the  occurrence  of  this  event,  troops  were 
raised  in  the  lower  towns,  and  in  the  following  January,  the 
Indians  were  defeated  in  a  series  of  bloody  engagements,  and 
their  villages  burnt  to  the  ground.  Since  that  time  peace 
and  harmony  have  for  the  most  part  prevailed. 

The  white  population  is  of  a  mixed  character.  There  are 
immigrants  from  almost  every  state  in  the  Union,  employes 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  hunters,  trappers,  and  half- 


1841.]  towns.  419 

breeds  of  every  hue  and  stamp.  For  several  years  after  the 
tide  of  immigration  was  turned  in  this  direction,  the  inhabi- 
tants had  no  regularly  constituted  government,  but  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  time  the  affairs  of  the  territory  were  managed  by 
a  legislative  committee,  consisting  of  nine  members,  and  an 
executive  council  composed  of  three  members.  In  August, 
1848,  however,  a  territorial  organization  was  provided  for 
them  by  a  law  of  Congress,  under  which  the  government  is 
now  administered. 

Astoria,  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Columbia,  eight  miles 
from  its  mouth,  was  first  established  as  a  trading  port,  by  John 
Jacob  Astor,  the  great  New  York  millionaire,  recently 
deceased,  and  is  now  the  principal  commercial  town.  Oregon 
City  is  the  seat  of  government,  and  is  situated  on  the  Willa- 
mette, about  one  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  water 
power  at  this  place  is  unusually  great.  The  river  is  a  fine, 
ample  stream,  and  pours  down  at  this  place  through  three 
natural  channels  worn  in  the  solid  rock,  with  a  descent 
of  from  thirty  to  forty  feet.  Just  in  rear  of  these  channels 
there  are  a  number  of  islands,  upon  which  buildings  for  ma- 
chinery, to  almost  any  extent,  can  be  erected.  Portland,  at 
the  head  of  ship  navigation  on  the  same  stream,  also  possesses 
a  fine  water  power,  and  is  a  thriving  town.  Fort  Vancouver, 
on  the  north  part  of  the  Columbia,  opposite  the  embouchure 
of  the  Willamette,  has  been  the  chief  station  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wide  extent  of  richly 
cultivated  country,  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  grazing. 
Fort  Walla- Walla,  at  the  junction  of  -"he  Walla-Walla  with 
the  Columbia,  and  Fort  Nisqually  on  Puget's  Sound,  are  the 
only  other  important  posts  in  the  territory :  the  former  is  sur- 
rounded by  some  excellent  farming  land,  and  the  latter  is  well 
situated  for  trading  with  the  Indians,  and  for  shipping  tho 
valuable  timber  of  northern  Oregon. 

(3.)  The  noble  Columbia  is  the  great  river  of  the  territory, 
and  is  over  one  thousand  miles  in  length.  It  has  two  principal 
affluents — the  northern  branch,  and  Saptin  or  Lewis  river. 
The  first  rises  among  the  Rocky  Mountains,  not  far  from  the 


420  rivers.  [1841 

52d  parallel  of  north  latitude,  at  an  elevation  of  near  four 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pursuing  a  south- 
erly course,  amid  the  lofty  mountains,  in  the  basins  formed 
between  which  it  sometimes  expands  into  lakes,  and  con- 
stantly increasing  its  volume  by  the  admission  of  numerous 
tributaries,  it  descends  to  Fort  Colville,  in  about  48°  30'  N. 
latitude,  where  its  bed  is  still  over  two  thousand  feet  above 
the  ocean.  From  hence  it  pursues  a  circuitous  westerly  and 
southerly  course  till  it  unites  with  Lewis  river  just  above  the 
46th  parallel ;  the  latter  having  already  traversed  a  distance 
of  five  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  its  distant  source  near 
the  South  Pass.  Just  below  the  junction  of  the  two  main 
branches,  the  Columbia  turns  to  the  westward  and  descends 
over  twelve  hundred  feet  in  its  passage  to  the  ocean.  In 
passing  through  the  Cascade  Range  it  forms  a  series  of  pic- 
turesque falls  and  cascades — from  which  the  neighboring 
mountains  derive  their  name — that  are  entirely  impassable 
even  in  the  highest  stages  of  water.  Below  the  cascades 
the  channel  is  unobstructed  for  forty  miles,  where  there  are 
other  rapids  that  interrupt  the  navigation  ;  but  from  thence 
to  the  ocean,  there  is  a  long  reach  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  in  the  course  of  which  the  waters  of  the  Willamette 
come  in  from  the  south,  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  twelve 
feet  of  water. 

Small  vessels  can  ascend  the  Willamette,  which  runs  nearly 
parallel  with  the  coast,  from  south  to  north,  to  within  three 
miles  of  the  falls,  though  that  stream,  as  well  as  the  Columbia, 
are  obstructed  by  the  sand  bars  constantly  forming,  which  are 
difficult  to  pass  except  at  high-tide.  Near  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  Oregon  is  the  Klamet,  or  Too-too-tut-na  river,  which 
rises  in  the  Klamet  range,  and  pursues  a  westerly  course  to 
the  ocean.  A  short  distance  north  of  the  43d  parallel  is  the 
Umpqua  river,  running  in  the  same  direction  with  the  Kla- 
met, which  has  its  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  Cascade  Range  near 
the  headwaters  of  the  Willamette.  There  are  numerous 
other  minor  streams  south  of  the  Columbia,  all  which,  like 


1841.]  HARBORS.  421 

the  Willamette,  are  bordered  by  the  finest  tracts  of  timbered 
land,  and  the  most  fertile  prairies  and  intervales. 

The  coast  outline  of  Oregon  is  bold  and  rocky,  and  there 
are  but  few  indentations  forming  harbors  sufficiently  large  for 
vessels  of  any  considerable  burden,  and  as  most  of  them  are 
openings  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  they  are  usually  obstructed 
by  sand  bars.  The  straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  however,  form 
the  noble  entrance  to  a  chain  of  magnificent  harbors  on  its 
southern  coast,  prominent  among  which  is  Puget's  Sound, 
consisting  of  an  inlet  that  stretches  into  the  interior  for  about 
one  hundred  miles  parallel  to  the  ocean.  The  entrance  to 
the  straits  is  easy,  the  shores  are  bold,  and  the  anchorage 
deep  in  the  main  channel.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
the  winds  are  favorable,  and  the  navigation  is  not  often  ob- 
structed by  the  ice  descending  from  the  upper  rivers.  There 
are  no  shoals  in  the  straits,  and  the  harbors  are  accessible  to 
vessels  of  any  burden,  spacious,  and  perfectly  secure. 

Gray's  Harbor  is  the  only  one  of  importance  south  of  Cape 
Flattery,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  and 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  This  has  a  narrow  open- 
ing, however,  with  dangerous  breakers  on  either  side,  and 
though  it  immediately  opens  out,  it  is  filled  with  mudflats, 
which  confine  the  anchorage  within  narrow  limits.  Various 
opinions  are  entertained  in  regard  to  the  entrance  to  the  Co- 
lumbia river,  which  affords  deep  and  secure  anchorage  in 
abundance  inside  its  bar.  For  twenty  miles  above  the  ocean 
this  river  widens  out  like  a  bay,  and  at  its  mouth  is  seven 
miles  across,  from  Cape  Disappointment  on  the  north  to  Point 
Adams  on  the  south.  Here,  where  its  mighty  tide  meets  the 
rolling  surge  of  the  ocean,  sand  bars  have  been  formed  stretch- 
ing out  for  a  great  distance  on  both  sides,  and  leaving  but  a 
narrow  channel  through  which  a  vessel  can  enter.  And  even 
this  cannot  always  be  reached,  as  the  cross  tides  changing  every 
half  hour  often  render  it  impossible  for  a  ship  to  maintain  her 
position.  At  some  seasons,  and,  as  it  is  said,  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  year,  it  is  highly  dangerous  to  attempt  entering  or  leav- 
ing the  river.     From  one  shore  to  the  other  a  foaming  line  of 


422  CLIMATE.  [1841 

breakers  is  formed,  which,  in  a  few  moments,  will  rend  the 
stoutest  craft  in  pieces,  when  it  has  once  grounded  upon  the 
bar.* 

From  fifty  to  sixty  miles  south  of  the  Columbia  is  Kila- 
muke  Bay,  which  is  spacious  in  extent,  but  presents  the  same 
difficulties  as  Gray's  Harbor,  and  can  be  entered  with  safety 
only  by  vessels  of  light  draft.  South  of  the  Kilamuke  are 
Celeste  and  Yacquina  bays,  both  of  which  are  small,  but  the 
latter  has  no  dangerous  bar  at  its  entrance,  which  is  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  wide,  and  is  perfectly  sheltered  from  the 
ocean  winds.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Umpqua  river,  also,  there 
is  a  wide  bay,  but  it  is  difficult  for  vessels  of  very  heavy  bur- 
den to  cross  the  bar. 

(4.)  Oregon  boasts  of  a  fine  climate,  not  more  favorable  to 
the  health  of  the  inhabitants  than  to  the  growth  of  agricul- 
tural products.  In  the  elevated  sections  of  the  interior,  east 
of  the  Blue  Mountains,  snow  lies  nearly  through  the  year  ; 
there  is  very  little  rain,  and  no  dew.  Here  the  thermometer 
has  a  wide  range  during  the  day ;  the  temperature  at  noon 
often  being  forty  degrees  higher  than  at  sunrise.  But  this 
portion  of  Oregon  is  regarded  by  the  inhabitants  as  an  •  out- 
sider' ;  and  when  they  refer,  as  they  can  do  with  justice,  to 
the  evenness  and  salubrity  of  their  climate,  they  have  in  view 
the  western  and  middle  sections  of  the  country,  where  the 
brown-colored  hills,  the  dark  evergreen  forests,  the  rolling 
prairies,  and  the  richly-carpeted  valleys,  are  bathed  in  the  clear 
blue  haze,  mingled  with  bright  tints  of  purple,  of  an  almost 
perpetual  spring. 

The  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  valley  of  the  Wil- 
lamette, is  from  30°  to  96°,  up  to  the  45th  parallel,  and  above 
this  it  is  not  often  much  colder.  The  winter  is  short,  com- 
mencing the  last  of  December,  and  continuing  only  until 
February.  During  this  time  snow  falls  but  rarely,  never  to 
the  depth  of  more  than  three  or  four  inches,  and  soon  disap- 
pears.    The  nights  are  cold,  and  frosts  occur  early,  sometimes 

*  In  the  opinion  of  Captain  Wilkes  (Narrative,  vol.  iv.  p.  491,)  the  safest  tima 
to  cross  the  bar  is  "  when  both  the  tide  and  wind  are  adverse." 


1841.]  TIMBER.  423 

towards  the  last  of  August ;  but  the  latter  are  owing  to  the 
proximity  of  the  mountains,  which  cause  a  fall  in  the  tem- 
perature, yet  they  are  never  severe.  Rains  are  quite  fre- 
quent, especially  from  November  till  March,  though  not  often 
heavy.  It  is  well  known  that  isothermal  lines,  or  lines  of 
equal  temperature,  traverse  the  earth  with  varied  eccentricity ; 
and  it  is  much  warmer  on  the  Pacific  coast,  than  in  the  same 
latitude  on  the  Atlantic  ;  hence,  fruit  trees  blossom  early  in 
April  at  Nisqually,  and  green  peas  and  strawberries  are 
abundant  in  May,  while  south  of  the  Columbia  grass  grows 
all  the  winter  long,  and  the  cattle  are  not  housed,  and  only 
confined  in  pens  at  night  to  protect  them  from  the  wolves  and 
other  wild  animals. 

Fever  and  ague,  occasioned  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  matter  turned  up  by  the  plow  on  the  prairies,  and 
some  pulmonary  complaints,  are  the  principal  diseases  to 
which  the  inhabitants  are  subject.  The  first  is  quite  fatal 
to  the  Indians,  solely  on  account  of  bad  treatment,  however  ; 
and  small-pox  has  made  dreadful  ravages  among  them. 

Most  conspicuous  among  the  productions  of  Oregon  are  the 
timber  trees.  These  are  truly  giants.  Near  Astoria,  in  the 
primeval  forest,  there  are  fir  trees  over  forty  feet  in  circum- 
ference, three  hundred  feet  long,  and  rising  to  the  height  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  without  giving  off  a  single  branch 
A  pine  in  the  same  vicinity,  measured  by  the  officers  of  the 
Exploring  Squadron,  was  thirty-nine  feet  six  inches  in  cir- 
cumference eight  feet  above  the  ground,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  high,  perfectly  straight  and  sound,  and  had  a  bark 
eleven  inches  thick.  On  the  banks  of  the  Umpqua,  a  fir  tree 
is  said  to  have  been  measured  that  proved  to  be  fifty-seven 
feet  in  circumference,  and  two  hundred  and  sixteen  feet  in 
length  below  its  first  branches.  Among  the  evergreens  are 
the  pine,  fir,  spruce,  arbutus,  arbor  vitae,  cedar  and  yew. 
The  principal  deciduous  trees  are  red  and  white  oaks,  hard 
and  soft  maples,  the  alder,  poplar,  elm,  and  cherry.  The  ash, 
here  and  there,  scatters  its  winged  seeds  upon  the  wind ;  and 
in  the  forests  of  southern  Oregon,  the  long  strings  of  balls  of 


424  AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS.  [1841 

the  sycamore,  and  the  feathery  scones  of  the  cotton-wood, 
wave  above  a  dense  undergrowth  of  willows,  hazels,  and  wild 
roses,  amid  which  occasionally  glisten  the  silvery  trunks  of  the 
birches,  "the  ladies  of  the  wood." 

South  of  the  Columbia  river,  however,  there  is,  compara- 
tively speaking,  but  little  forest-land.  But  in  northern  Oregon 
there  is  an  abundance  of  timber  for  home  consumption,  as  well 
as  for  exportation ;  and  since  the  discovery  of  the  gold  mines 
of  California  and  the  rapid  population  of  that  territory,  the 
value  of  the  timber  has  enhanced  in  a  wonderful  degree. 
California  is  almost  entirely  destitute  of  timber  for  building,  and 
for  years  to  come,  the  chief  supply  must  be  obtained  from  the 
exhaustless  forests  of  Oregon,  where  the  immense  water  power 
renders  every  desirable  facility  for  getting  it  out  in  any 
quantity.* 

All  kinds  of  grass — timothy,  clover,  and  blue  grass — grow 
with  the  greatest  luxuriance  in  the  valleys  of  the  Columbia, 
Willamette,  Umpqua,  and  other  streams  in  the  eastern  sec- 
tion. Indeed,  the  country  seems  to  be  peculiarly  well  adapted 
to  their  growth,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  excelled  in  the  Union 
for  good  pasturage.  There  are  two  crops  of  rich,  juicy  grass, 
produced  on  the  river  prairies ;  one  in  the  spring,  and  the 
other  after  the  overflow  subsides,  in  July  or  August.  Yet 
there  is  very  little  hay  made ;  the  scythe  and  the  rake,  aad 
the  toil  and  sweat  of  the  mower,  are  rendered  almost  unne- 
cessary by  the  kindness  of  nature.  The  growth  of  the  grass  is 
so  rapid  in  the  early  summer,  that  the  subsequent  heats  con- 
vert it  readily  into  hay  where  it  stands,  without  the  loss  of 
any  of  its  juices.  Upon  the  second  crop  the  stock  feed  during 
the  winter. 

The  soil  of  the  prairies  and  interval  lands  contains  an 
abundance  of  silex,  and  where  it  is  sufficiently  dry  produces 

*  In  September,  1849,  timber  was  worth  from  forty  to  fifty  dollars  per  thousand 
feet,  in  Oregon,  for  exportation  to  California,  and  will  probably  never  rule  below 
twenty  dollars,  even  when  prices  fall  back  to  their  proper  level.  Beef,  pork, 
grain,  butter  and  cheese,  indeed  all  kinds  of  agricultural  products  raised  in 
Oregon,  will  doubtless  find  a  ready  market  in  California  for  many  years  to 
come. 


1841.]  FRUITS    AND    GAME.  425 

fine  crops  of  wheat, — the  yield  varying  from  twenty  to  fifty 
bushels  per  acre,  often  of  more  than  sixty  pounds  weight. 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  complete  failure  of  the  wheat 
crop  ;  but  as  the  waters  of  the  rivers  are  quite  cold,  and  pos- 
sess little  or  no  fertilizing  properties,  it  is  liable  to  be  injured 
by  the  inundations,  in  all  low  exposures.  Indian  corn  and 
oats  do  not  succeed  very  well ;  the  former  suffering  much 
during  the  cold  nights,  and  the  latter  producing  small  heads 
in  comparison  with  the  stalk.  For  peas,  beans,  potatoes,  and 
most  garden  vegetables,  the  soil  is  superior. 

As  the  labors  of  the  farmer  are  lightened  in  the  summer 
season  by  the  absence  of  a  necessity  for  securing  a  supply  of 
hay  for  his  stock,  so  he  is  relieved  during  the  winter  from 
providing  them  with  a  shelter,  except  a  few  pens  or  inclosures 
into  which  they  may  be  driven  at  night,  and  from  bestowing 
upon  them  any  extraordinary  care.  The  horses  and  cattle 
thrive  well,  and  look  unusually  fat  and  sleek.  Merino  sheep 
are  not  suited  to  the  climate,  but  the  California  breed,  crossed 
with  the  Leicester,  Bakewell,  and  other  stout  and  hardy 
breeds,  prosper  finely,  yeaning  time  occurring  twice  a  year, 
and  at  the  shearing  exhibit  fleeces  weighing  from  eight  to 
twelve  pounds.  Hogs  require  but  little  care  :  they  are  gene- 
rally fattened  on  wheat,  which  is  said  to  make  the  finest  pork. 
Oregon  is  not  deficient  in  fruits.  Apples,  pears,  and  cur- 
rants, have  a  thrifty  growth,  and  yield  plentifully ;  and  the 
indigenous  fruits,  including  gooseberries,  strawberries,  black- 
berries, serviceberries,  cranberries,  crab  apples,  wild  cherries, 
wild  peas,  and  thorn  apples,  are  very  prolific. 

In  former  times,  the  abundance  of  game  found  in  this  region 
made  it  a  favorite  resort  for  the  hunter  and  trapper  ;  but  the 
animals  valuable  for  their  furs  are  fast  disappearing,  and  the  buf- 
falo is  now  rarely  seen.  The  principal  animals  found  are  the 
black-tailed  and  common  red  deer,  the  grizzly  and  black  bear, 
three  different  species  of  the  wolf,  the  wild  cat,  panther,  antelope, 
mountain  sheep,  beaver,  and  otter.  Squirrels,  foxes,  rabbits, 
racoons,  hedgehogs,  and  weasels,  are  abundant.  Thestreamsof 
Oregon  produce  excellent  fish,  and  great  quantities  of  salmon 


426  CALIFORNIA.  [1841. 

are  annually  taken  in  the  rivers  discharging  their  waters  into 
Puget's  Sound.  All  the  birds  commonly  found  on  the  At- 
lantic coasts  in  about  the  same  latitude  are  seen  here,  and  on 
the  ocean  shores  there  are  an  abundance  of  gulls,  frigate-birds, 
villula,  and  other  aquatic  fowl. 

(5.)  California,  formerly  designated  as  Upper  California, 
was  first  discovered  by  Cobrillo,  a  Spanish  navigator,  who 
visited  the  lower  portion  of  the  country  in  1542.  Sir  Francis 
Drake  discovered  the  upper  part  in  1578,  and  called  it  New 
Albion.  It  was  colonized,  however,  by  the  Spaniards,  in 
1767,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  territory  of  New  Spain — sub- 
sequently the  Mexican  Republic — till  the  year  1848.  By  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  concluded  on  the  2d  day  of 
February  of  that  year,  it  was  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United 
States.  But  little  importance  was  then  attached  to  it,  ex- 
cept for  the  fine  harbors  it  contained ;  but  within  a  few  months 
after  the  cession,  the  whole  American  Union,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  world,  were  electrified  by  the  unexpected  discovery  of 
vast  stores  of  mineral  wealth  in  this  new  acquisition.  As  the 
circumstances  attending  this  discovery  have  been  described 
by  me  in  detail,  in  another  work  ;*  and  as  I  do  not  know  that 
I  should  desire  to  change  anything  there  written,  in  any 
particular,  I  transcribe  it  here : 

Vague  rumors  in  regard  to  the  mineral  treasures  locked  up 
in  the  volcanic  mountain  ranges  of  California — at  certain 
times  attracting  greater  attention  than  at  others,  but  never 
receiving  much  credit — have  been  circulating  throughout  the 
world  for  centuries.  Among  the  first  trophies  brought  to  Cortes, 
after  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  1521,  were  samples  of  Cali- 
fornian  pearls ;  and  it  was  then  reported,  that  gold  and  gems 
were  to  bo  found  in  the  regions  at  the  north,  which  had  not 
yet  been  visited  by  the  Europeans.  Two  expeditions  were 
fitted  out  by  Cortes,  in  1532  and  1533,  and  sent  on  voyages 
of  discovery  to  the  north-west.  The  latter  crossed  the  Gulf 
of  California,  called  by  the  Spaniards,  in  honor  of  the  illus- 

*  History  of  the  War  with  Mexico  (sup.  nota.),  p.  507,  et  eeq. 


1841.]  EXPEDITIONS    OP   CORTES.  427 

trious  discoverer,  Mer  de  Cortes — the  Sea  of  Cortes — and 
effected  a  landing  at  the  modern  port  of  La  Paz.  Shortly 
after  this,  the  Conqueror  himself  embarked  with  a  squadron, 
and  planted  a  colony  at  the  same  place.  His  attempts  to  settle 
the  country,  however,  were  unsuccessful,  and  the  colonists 
eventually  returned  to  Mexico.  In  1539,  he  dispatched  an- 
other expedition,  under  an  officer  by  the  name  of  Ulloa,  who 
sailed  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf,  doubled  the  peninsula,  and 
ascended  along  the  western  coast,  to  the  twenty-eighth  or 
twenty-ninth  degree  of  north  latitude,  but  was  never  after- 
wards heard  of. 

Nothing  daunted  by  his  ill  success,  Cortes  projected  still 
another  expedition ;  but  his  enterprise  was  now  checked  by 
the  viceroy  Mendoza,  whose  mind  had  been  inflamed  by  the 
golden  reports  of  an  itinerant  monk  sent  to  convert  the  Indians 
of  Sonora,  and  who  had  penetrated  far  into  the  interior  of 
California.  The  viceroy  claimed  the  right  of  discovery,  and 
Cortes  appealed  to  the  Emperor.  The  premature  death  of 
Cortes,  pending  the  appeal,  put  an  end  to  all  his  ambitious 
hopes,  and,  in  a  considerable  degree,  to  the  discoveries  which 
he  and  others  had  anticipated.* 

"Various  expeditions  were  subsequently  undertaken,  but 
with  little  or  no  success.  The  energetic  spirit  of  the  great  ad- 
venturer and  discoverer  had  died  with  him ;  the  glittering 
realms,  where  gold  and  precious  stones  were  said  to  abound  in 
exhaustless  profusion,  were  never  reached ;  and  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Conquistador es  were  obliged  to  content  them- 
selves with  the  far  less  valuable  silver  mines  of  Mexico. 

The  pearl  fisheries  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  however,  were 
soon  made  available,  and  formal  possession  of  the  peninsula 
was  taken  by  the  Spanish  authorities,  in  1569.  Not  quite 
fifty  years  later,  the  Jesuits  established  themselves  in  the 
country,  and  gradually  extended  their  missions  to  the  north. 
They  were,  no  doubt,  aware  of  the  existence  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver in  California  ;  yet  they  dissuaded  the  Indians  from  digging 

*  Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico,  VoL  III,  p.  333,  et  seq. — Greenhow's  History 
of  Oregon  and  California,  p.  22,  et  seq. 


428  SETTLEMENT    OF    THE    COUNTRY.  [1841. 

after  the  minerals — probably  for  the  reason  that  they  did  not 
suppose  there  could  be  sufficient  quantities  found  to  render 
the  search  profitable — and  encouraged  them  to  devote  their 
time  to  herding  cattle  and  other  agricultural  pursuits.  In 
1767,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  the  possessions  of  Spain, 
and  were  succeeded,  in  California,  by  Franciscan  and  Domini- 
can friars.  Deprived  of  the  fostering  care,  the  energy  and 
industry,  of  the  followers  of  Ignatius  Loyola,  the  mission 
establishments  began  rapidly  to  decline,  and  the  discoveries 
which  might  ultimately  have  been  made,  under  their  auspices, 
were  reserved  for  a  more  enterprising  people  than  the  white  in- 
habitants who  now  made  their  way  to  the  Californias. 

Adventurers  from  Mexico,  from  Spain,  and  the  United 
States,  American  and  European  seamen,  emigrated  thither, 
and  founded  settlements  on  the  inner  shore  of  the  Gulf,  and 
along  the  iron-bound  coast  of  the  Pacific,  from  Cape  San 
Lucas  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.*  Some  few  among  them 
appear  to  have  been  active  and  industrious,  but  the  great  ma- 
jority speedily  relapsed  into  habits  of  indolence  and  slothful- 
ness.  No  extraordinary  efforts  were  made  to  develop  the 
resources  of  the  country ;  considerable  silver  was  discovered, 
but  as  there  was  no  mercury  to  purify  it,  that  obtained  was 
of  an  inferior  quality,  and  afforded  a  trifling  profit.  A  rich 
mine,  called  San  Antonio,  near  La  Paz,  was  wrought  for 
several  years,  and  is  said  to  have  yielded  handsome  returns. 
But  the  political  dissensions  that  agitated  the  southern 
departments  of  Mexico  were  felt  in  the  Californias,  perhaps 
more  than  all,  in  the  baneful  influence  which  they  exerted  in 
repressing  the  energies  of  the  inhabitants,  and  curbing  the 
little  spirit  of  enterprise  that  had  previously  animated  them. 

For  many  years,  there  was  scarcely  the  least  improvement 
in  Upper  or  Lower  California;  and  if  any  progress  was  made, 
it  was  at  a  snail's  pace.  Hides  and  tallow  formed  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  exportation  from  the  upper  province ;  but  the 
trade  was  small,  and  liable  to  frequent  interruptions,  by  reason 

*  The  mongrel  white  population  of  Upper  California  was  computed,  in  1842 
to  be  about  5,000,  and  the  Indians  33,000. 


1841.]  BOUNDARIES.  s  429 

of  the  struggles  between  the  different  factions  for  the  ascen- 
dency. Matters  remained  pretty  much  in  this  condition,  till 
after  the  termination  of  the  war  with  the  United  States,  and 
the  cession  to  them  of  Upper  California. 

This  territory,  now  belonging  to  the  American  Union,  em- 
braces an  area  of  448,961  square  miles.  It  extends  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  from  about  the  thirty-second  parallel  of  north 
latitude,  a  distance  of  near  seven  hundred  miles,  to  the 
forty-second  parallel,  the  southern  boundary  of  Oregon.  On 
the  east,  it  is  bounded  by  New  Mexico.  During  the  long 
period  which  transpired  between  its  discovery  and  its  cession 
to  the  United  States,  this  vast  tract  of  country  was  frequent- 
ly visited  by  men  of  science,  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Re- 
peated examinations  were  made  by  learned  and  enterprising 
officers  and  civilians;  but  none  of  them  discovered  the  impor- 
tant fact,  that  the  mountain  torrents  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
were  constantly  pouring  down  their  golden  sands  into  the 
valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin.  The  glittering 
particles  twinkled  beneath  their  feet,  in  the  ravines  which  they 
explored,  or  glistened  in  the  water-courses  which  they  forded, 
yet  they  passed  them  by  unheeded.  Not  a  legend  or  tradition 
was  heard  among  the  white  settlers,  or  the  aborigines,  that 
attracted  their  curiosity.  A  nation's  ransom  lay  within  their 
grasp,  but,  strange  to  say,  it  escaped  their  notice — it  flashed 
and  sparkled  all  in  vain.* 

The  Russian  American  Company  had  a  large  establishment 
at  Ross  and  Bodega,  ninety  miles  north  of  San  Francisco, 
founded  in  the  year  1812  ;  and  factories  were  also  established 
in  the  territory  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Their  agents 
and  employes  ransacked  the  whole  country  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  or  Snowy  Mountain,  in  search  of  game.  In  1838, 
Captain  Sutter,  formerly  an  officer  in  the  Swiss  Guards  of 
Charles  X,  King  of  France,  emigrated  from  the  state  of 
Missouri  to  Upper  California,  and  obtained  from  the  Mexican 
government  a  conditional  grant  of  thirty  leagues  square  of 

*  A  gold  placera  was  discovered  some  years  ago,  near  the  mission  of  San  Fer- 
nando, but  it  was  very  little  worked,  on  account  of  the  want  of  water. 


430  AMERICAN   EXPLORATIONS.  [1841. 

land,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Sacramento  river.  Having 
purchased  the  stock,  arms,  and  ammunition  of  the  Russian 
establishment,  he  erected  a  dwelling  and  fortification  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Sacramento,  about  fifty  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  near  what  was  termed,  in  allusion  to  the  new  settlers,  the 
American  Fork.  This  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  thriving  settle- 
ment, to  which  Captain  Sutter  gave  the  name  of  New  Hel- 
vetia. It  is  situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  for  vessels  on 
the  Sacramento,  in  latitude  38°  33'  45"  North,  and  longitude 
121°  20'  05"  West.  During  a  residence  of  ten  years  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  recently  discovered  placeras,  or  gold 
regions,  Captain  Sutter  was  neither  the  wiser  nor  the  richer  for 
the  brilliant  treasures  that  lay  scattered  around  him.* 

In  the  year  1841,  careful  examinations  of  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  and  of  the  Sacramento  river  and  its  tributaries, 
were  made  by  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  the  commander  of  the 
Exploring  Expedition;  and  a  party  under  Lieutenant  Em- 
mons, of  the  navy,  proceeded  up  the  valley  of  the  Willa- 
mette, crossed  the  intervening  highlands,  and  descended  the 
Sacramento.  In  1843-4,  similar  examinations  were  made  by 
Captain,  afterwards  Lieutenant-Colonel,  Fremont,  of  the  To- 
pographical Engineers,  and  in  1846,  by  Major  Emory,  of  the 
same  corps.  None  of  these  officers  made  any  discoveries  of 
minerals,  although  they  were  led  to  conjecture,  as  private  in- 
dividuals who  had  visited  the  country  had  done,  from  its  vol- 
canic formation  and  peculiar  geological  features,  that  they 
might  be  found  to  exist  in  considerable  quantities.t 

*  Farnham's  Adventures  in  California. — Wilkes'  Narrative  of  the  Exploring 
Expedition. — Fremont's  Narrative. 

f  See  Farnham's  Adventures,  Wilkes'  and  Fremont's  Narratives,  and  Emory's 
Report. —  In  1846,  Eugenio  Macnamara,  a  Catholic  priest  and  missionary,  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  between  the  San  Joaquin  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  the  Cosumnes  and  the  Tulares  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Gabriel,  from  Pio 
Pico,  governor  of  the  Californias,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  upon  it  a  Large 
colony  of  Irish  Catholics ;  but  the  grant  was  not  ratified  by  the  Central  Govern- 
ment, and  the  project  was  not  carried  into  effect.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
Father  Macnamarawas  aware  of  the  existence  of  gold  in  the  valley  of  the  Sao 
Joaquin. 


1841.J  DISCOVERY   OF    GOLD.  431 

As  is  often  the  case,  chance  at  length  accomplished  what 
science  had  failed  to  do.  In  the  winter  of  1847-8,  a  Mr- 
Marshall  commenced  the  construction  of  a  saw-mill  for  Cap- 
tain Sutter,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  American  Fork,  and 
about  fifty  miles  above  New  Helvetia,  in  a  region  abounding 
with  pine  timber.  The  dam  and  race  were  completed,  but  on 
attempting  to  put  the  mill  in  motion,  it  was  ascertained  that 
the  tail-race  was  too  narrow  to  permit  the  water  to  escape 
with  perfect  freedom.  A  strong  current  was  then  passed  in, 
to  wash  it  wider  and  deeper,  by  which  a  large  bed  of  mud  and 
gravel  was  thrown  up  at  the  foot  of  the  race.  Some  days 
after  this  occurrence,  Mr.  Marshall  observed  a  number  of 
brilliant  particles  on  this  deposit  of  mud,  which  attracted  his 
attention.  On  examining  them,  he  became  satisfied  that  they 
were  gold,  and  communicated  the  fact  to  Captain  Sutter.  It 
was  agreed  between  them,  that  the  circumstance  should  not 
be  made  public  for  the  present ;  but,  like  the  secret  of  Midas, 
it  could  not  be  concealed.  The  Mormon  emigrants,  of  whom 
•  Mr.  Marshall  was  one,  were  soon  made  acquainted  with  the 
discovery,  and  in  a  few  weeks  all  California  was  agitated 
with  the  startling  information. 

Business  of  every  kind  was  neglected,  and  the  ripened  grain 
was  left  in  the  fields  unharvested.  Nearly  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  Upper  California  became  infected  with  the  mania, 
and  flocked  to  the  mines.  Whalers  and  merchant  vessels  enter- 
ing the  ports  were  abandoned  by  their  crews,  and  the  Ameri- 
can soldiers  and  sailors  deserted  in  scores.  Upon  the  disband- 
ment  of  Colonel  Stevenson's  regiment,  most  of  the  men  made 
their  way  to  the  mineral  regions.  Within  three  months  after 
the  discovery,  it  was  computed  that  there  were  near  four 
thousand  persons,  including  Indians,  who  were  mostly  employ- 
ed by  the  whites,  engaged  in  washing  for  gold.  Various 
modes  were  adopted  to  separate  the  metal  from  the  sand  and 
gravel — some  making  use  of  tin  pans,  others  of  close-woven 
Indian  baskets,  and  others  still,  of  a  rude  machine  called  the 
cradle,  six  or  eight  feet  long,  and  mounted  on  rockers,  with  a 
coarse  grate,  or  sieve,  at  one  end,  but  open  at  the  other.     The 


432  PURITY    OF    THE    METAL.  [1841. 

washings  were  mainly  confined  to  the  low  wet  grounds,  and 
the  margins  of  the  streams — the  earth  being  rarely  disturbed 
more  than  eighteen  inches  below  the  surface.  The  value  of 
the  gold-dust  obtained  by  each  man,  per  day,  is  said  to  have 
ranged  from  ten  to  fifty  dollars,  and  sometimes  even  to  have 
far  exceeded  that.  The  natural  consequence  of  this  state  of 
things  was,  that  the  price  of  labor,  and,  indeed,  of  everything, 
rose  immediately  from  ten  to  twenty  fold.*" 

As  may  readily  be  conjectured,  every  stream  and  ravine  in 
the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  was  soon  explored.  Gold  was 
found  on  every  one  of  its  tributaries ;  but  the  richest  earth 
was  discovered  near  the  Rio  de  los  Plumas,  or  Feather 
river,t  and  its  branches,  the  Yubah  and  Bear  rivers,  and  on 
Weber's  creek,  a  tributary  of  the  American  Fork.  Explora- 
tions were  also  made  in  the  valley  of  the  San  Joaquin,  which 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Cosumnes  and  other 
streams,  and  in  the  ravines  of  the  Coast  Range,  west  of  the 
valley,  as  far  down  as  Ciudad  de  los  Angelos., 

Sometimes  the  gold  has  been  found  encasing  a  bright, 
sparkling  crystal  of  quartz,  but  no  accounts  have  been  receiv- 
ed up  to  this  date  (January,  1849)  indicating  that  it  has  been 
encountered  in  its  matrix,  or  the  place  of  its  original  produc- 
tion. In  the  "  dry  diggings,"  or  ravines,  it  is  obtained  in  grains, 
averaging  from  one  to  two  pennyweights  ;  but  in  the  swamps, 
and  on  the  margins  of  streams,  it  is  procured  in  small  flat 
spangles,  six  or  seven  of  which  are  required  to  make  one 
grain.  Specimens  of  the  metal  have  been  assayed  at  the  mint 
in  Philadelphia,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Patterson, 
and  the  average  fineness  ascertained  to  be  894  thousandths, 
being  a  little  below  the  standard,  which  is  900,  but  fully  equal 

*  Official  Dispatch  of  Colonel  Mason,  Commander  of  the  10th  Military  Depart 
ment,  August  17, 1848. — Letters  of  Thomas  C.  Larkin,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Monterey, 
to  the  Secretary  of  State,  June  1,  and  June  28, 1848. 

f  Feather  river  is  the  first  considerable  branch  of  the  Sacramento  below  the 
Prairie  Buttes.  It  has  a  course  of  about  forty  miles,  and  empties  into  the 
main  river  about  fifteen  miles  above  New  Helvetia.  Though  the  Sacramento 
is  navigable  for  vessels  only  to  that  place,  boats  can  pass  up  one  hundred  miles 
further. 


MAP   Of  THB    BOLD   PLACKRA.   FIRST   DISCOVERED 


19 


434  PRODUCTIVENESS  OF    THE    MINES.  [1841 

to  that  obtained  in  the  southern  states,  and  nearly  as  good  as 
the  best  gold  procured  in  Africa. 

In  regard  to  the  productiveness  of  the  gold  placeras  of 
California,  it  is  difficult  to  make  any  estimates,  or  form  any 
conjectures.  In  a  Memorial  of  the  citizens  of  San  Francisco, 
dated  in  September,  1848,  praying  Congress  to  establish 
a  branch  mint  in  the  territory,  it  was  estimated  that  the  sum 
of  five  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars  would  be  removed  from 
the  mines  during  the  year  ending  on  the  1st  of  July,  1849. 
But  this  calculation  was  evidently  predicated  on  the  number 
of  persons  then  engaged  at  the  washings.  Since  that  time, 
there  has  been  a  vast  influx  of  gold-hunters  from  Oregon, 
Mexico,  South  America,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Large 
numbers  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  have  also  set  out  for 
California,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  the  Panama  route,  or  over- 
land from  Independence.  It  is,  therefore,  not  improbable,  that 
before  the  close  of  the  year,  the  population  may  be  trebled,  01 
even  quadrupled. 

It  has  been  predicted  by  some,  that  the  washings  in  Cali 
fornia  would  soon  be  exhausted,  as  were  those  of  Brazil,  from 
which  ten  millions  sterling  were  once  annually  sent  to  Eu- 
rope. The  volcanic  character  of  the  country,  and  its  geologi- 
cal peculiarities  hardly  confirm  this  opinion,  although  it  is  by 
no  means  improbable.  Gold  has  been  found,  or  there  are  in- 
dications of  its  existence,  at  different  points  along  the  western 
base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  for  nearly  seven  hundred  miles, 
and  it  has  been  discovered  east  of  the  mountains,  on  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,  and  at  various  other  places  in  the  great  interior 
basin  of  California.  If  we  may  place  any  reliance  upon  the 
inferences  fairly  deducible  from  these  facts,  it  may  be  safely 
presumed,  that  the  rugged  buttresses  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
contain  a  vaster  deposit  of  mineral  wealth  than  has  yet  been 
found  in  any  other  locality  in  the  known  world — in  extent 
and  productiveness  far  excelling  the  Andes  of  Peru,  the 
Carpathian  range  of  Hungary,  or  the  Ural  mountains  of 
Russia.* 

•  The  peaki  of  the  Biorra  Nevada  are  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand  feet  abov» 


1841.]  OTHER   MINERALS.  *    435 

In  addition  to  the  gold  mines,  other  important  discoveries 
have  been  made  in  Upper  California.  A  rich  vein  of  quick- 
silver has  been  opened  at  New  Almadin,  near  Santa  Clara, 
which,  with  imperfect  machinery, — the  heat  by  which  the 
metal  is  made  to  exude  from  the  rock  being  applied  by  a  very 
rude  process, — yields  over  thirty  per  cent.  This  mine — one 
of  the  principal  advantages  to  be  derived  from  which  will  be, 
that  the  working  of  the  silver  mines  scattered  through  the 
territory  must  now  become  profitable — is  superior  to  those  of 
Almadin,  in  Old  Spain,  and  second  only  to  those  of  Idria,  near 
Trieste,  the  richest  in  the  world.*  It  is  more  than  probable, 
also,  that  other  veins  will  be  opened,  as  the  soil,  for  miles 
around,  is  highly  impregnated  with  mercury. 

Lead  mines  have  likewise  been  discovered  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Sonoma,  and  vast  beds  of  iron  ore  near  the  American 
fork,  yielding  from  eighty-five  to  ninety  per  cent.  Copper, 
platina,  tin,  sulphur,  zinc,  and  cobalt,  everywhere  abound  ; 
coal  exists  in  large  quantities  in  the  Cascade  Range  of  Oregon, 
of  which  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  a  continuation ;  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  all  this  mineral  wealth,  there  are  immense  quarries 
of  marble  and  granite,  for  building  purposes. 

Colonel  Mason  expresses  the  opinion,  in  his  official  dispatch, 
that  "there  is  more  gold  in  the  country  drained  by  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  than  will  pay  the  cost 
of  the  [late]  war  with  Mexico  a  hundred  times  over."t  Should 
this  even  prove  to  be  an  exaggeration,  there  can  be  little 
reason  to  doubt,  when  we  take  into  consideration  all  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  country,  that  the  territory  of  Cali- 
fornia is  by  far  the  richest  acquisition  made  by  this  govern- 
ment since  its  organization.  All  that  is  needed,  to  render 
these  resources  of  incalculable  benefit  to  our  people,  is  to  dis- 

the  level  of  the  ocean;  the  Carpathian  mountains,  seven  thousand  five  hundred 
feet;  and  the  Ural  mountains,  between  four  and  five  thousand  feet. 

*  The  mines  of  Almadin  yield  only  ten  per  cent;  and  those  at  Idria  range 
as  high  as  eighty  per  cent,  although  ores  containing  only  one  per  cent  are  worked. 
Specimens  of  cinnabar  from  California  have  been  examined  at  the  Philadelphia 
mint :  the  red  ore  yielded  over  thirty-three  per  cent,  and  the  yellow  ore  over  fifteen, 

f  Letter  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  August  17,  1848. 


436  PROSPECT   FOR   THE    FUTURE.  [1841. 

countenance  from  the  outset  the  system  of  monopoly  which 
proved  so  ruinous  to  the  interests  of  Spain  in  Mexico  and 
Peru;  to  foster  individual  enterprise;  and  to  open  a  more 
direct  communication  with  California,  by  a  railroad  across 
the  isthmus  of  Panama,  as  is  now  contemplated,  or  some 
similar  work. 

Since  the  foregoing  account  was  written,  the  valleys  of  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  have  been  inundated  with  gold- 
seekers  ;  some  of  whom  were  doomed  to  disappointment  at 
the  outset,  while  others  have  been  exceedingly  fortunate, 
though  but  a  very  few,  perhaps  none,  have  quite  equalled 
their  expectations.  Those  who  first  arrived  in  the  country, 
with  those  on  the  spot  at  the  time  of  the  discovery,  have  been 
the  most  successful.  One  placera  after  another,  literally 
teeming  with  wealth,  have  been  discovered;  rich  deposits  of 
the  precious  metal  have  been  disclosed  in  every  gulche  and 
canon ;  and  the  glowing  statements  of  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
hitherto  so  commonly  discredited,  seem  to  have  been  actually 
verified .*  Quite  recently  gold  has  been  found  in  its  matrix, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mariposa,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
San  Joaquin  :  here  there  has  been  a  fine  vein  opened,  which 
has  been  traced  for  two  leagues,  and  appears  to  have  an  aver- 
age breadth  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  to  dip  only 
about  20°;  the  metal  occurs  in  strata  of  reddish  quartz,  and 
eight  ounces  of  pure  gold  are  obtained  from  one  hundred 
pounds  of  rock. 

The  extent  of  the  mineral  resources,  and  more  particularly 
of  the  gold  deposits  of  California,  is  still  a  matter  of  conjec- 
ture ;  but  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  time  for 
accumulating  fortunes  in  a  day  has  nearly  gone  by ;  and  un- 
less still  greater  discoveries  should  be  made,  at  the  close  of 
another  mining  season,  with  the  vast  addition  which  will  un- 

*  "The  country,  too,  if  we  can  depend  upon  what  Sir  Francis  Drake  or  his 
chaplain  say,  is  worth  the  seeking  and  the  keeping— since  they  assert  that  the 
land  is  so  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  that  upon  the  slightest  turning  it  up  with  a 
spade  or  pick-axe,  those  rich  metals  plainly  appear  mixed  with  the  mould."— 
Pinkerton's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.  p.  172. 


1841.]  AVERAGE    YIELD.  437 

doubtedly  be  made  to  the  number  of  persons  operating  in  the 
mining  districts  during  the  past  year,  the  placeras  will  be  so 
much  exhausted,  that  they  cannot  be  profitably  worked  with- 
out cheap    labor   and   expensive   machinery.     Should   other 
deposits  of  the  metal  be  found,  however,  equalling  or  nearly 
approaching  in  richness,  those  which  have  been  already  dis- 
closed, it  would    be  idle  to  predict  when   these   discoveries 
will  end.     It  is   far  better,  nevertheless,  that  too  sanguine 
expectations  should  not  be  formed,  for  disappointment,  come 
when  or  how  it  may,  needs  nothing  to  heighten  its  poignancy. 
It  is  computed  that  the  value  of  the  gold  taken  from  the 
mines  during  the  first  twelve  months  subsequent  to  the  dis- 
covery, was  not  far  from  thirty  millions  of  dollars.     Of  this 
amount  only  about  six  millions  of  dollars  have  reached  the 
Atlantic  sea  board ;  some  ten  or  twelve  millions  have  been 
carried  to  foreign  countries ;  and  the  balance  still  remains  in 
the  territory.     At  first,  many  of  the  miners  obtained  an  ounce 
of  gold  per  day,  but  the  general  average  has  not  been  five 
dollars  per  day  to  each  person  while  actually  at  work.     Tak- 
ing into  consideration  the  enormous  prices  to  be  paid  for  every 
article  of  necessity  or  luxury,  this  return  is  by  no  means 
flattering;  for  there  is  a  great  portion  of  the   year  during 
which  the  mining  operations  are  for  the  most  part  suspended, 
by  the  recurrence  of  the  rainy  season.     While  such  prices 
are  maintained,  the  yield  of  gold  should  amount  upon  an 
average  to  at  least  five  dollars  per  day  to  every  individual  in 
the  territory,  including  as  well  those  engaged  in  trade  and 
furnishing  supplies,  as  those  at  work  in  the  mines.     Accord- 
ing to  the  latest  accounts  from  this  auriferous  region,  the  rich 
washings  on  Feather  river  and  some  other  streams  have  been 
measurably  exhausted,  though  with  good  machinery  and  In- 
dian labor  still  yielding  a  fair  remuneration.*     In  some  in- 
stances, the  courses  of  the  streams  have  been  turned,  or  their 

*  Individual  miners  have  so  far  succeeded  much  better  with  a  common  tin 
pan,  or  basin,  for  washing  their  gold,  and  it  is  full  as  popular  at  the  placeras  of 
California  as  is  the  gamella  at  the  washings  of  Brazil.  Small  parties  still  prefer 
to  adhere  to  the  rocker  or  cradle. 


438  RAGE    FOR    SPECULATION.  [1841. 

waters  dammed  up,  in  order  to  examine  their  beds,  and  valu- 
able deposits  of  gold  have  been  found  ;  but  similar  attempts 
have,  in  other  cases,  often  proved  unsuccessful. 

But  even  amid  the  golden  sands  of  California,  man  cannot 
escape  from  his  destiny.  Toil  is  his  allotment  there  as 
everywhere.  Working  in  the  placeras  is  no  boyish  pastime. 
None  but  those  inured  from  early  life  to  the  severest  labor  and 
hardship  can  pass  through  the  ordeal  unscathed.  Whether 
moiling  in  the  earth  in  the  dry  diggings,  beneath  the  blistering 
rocks,  and  amid  the  scorching  sands,  or  standing  up  to  the 
knees  in  the  ice-cold  waters  of  the  mountain  torrents,  with 
the  blazing  orb  of  day  pouring  down  hour  after  hour  his  burn- 
ing rays  against  which  there  is  no  shelter  or  protection,  the 
powers  of  endurance  are  taxed  to  the  utmost.  The  climate 
is  not  unhealthy,  it  is  true,  but  the  heat  is  oppressive,  and 
when  this  relaxes  the  system,  exposure  to  the  cold  night-air 
pretty  surely  brings  on  disease.  Added  to  this,  the  miner 
rarely  enjoys  any  of  the  comforts,  and  is  frequently  deprived 
of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Still,  those  who  find  their  physical 
powers  equal  to  the  task,  and  continue  their  labor  in  spite  of 
every  hardship  and  trial,  do  not  go  unrewarded. 

Fortune,  however,  smiles  less  kindly  on  those  who  undergo 
the  greatest  fatigue,  and  perform  the  severest  labor,  than 
upon  those  who  profit  by  their  necessities.  The  toil  and 
sweat  of  the  former  often  go  to  enrich  the  cunning  trader 
and  the  shrewd  speculator.  The  prices  of  food  and  clothing, 
of  luxuries  and  necessaries,  of  everything  that  can  please  the 
fancy,  or  gratify  the  appetite,  are  from  one  to  ten  hundred 
per  cent  higher  than  in  the  Atlantic  states  ;  and  those  en- 
gaged in  providing  supplies  for  the  miner  are  in  a  majority 
of  cases  accumulating  large  fortunes.  Yet  it  is  to  be  regret- 
ted that  the  rage  for  speculation  has  already  extended  so 
widely  in  the  territory,  for,  though  of  little  importance  at  the 
outset,  it  soon  becomes  as  incapable  of  control  as  the  ra^inr 
whirlwind,  and,  like  that,  always  leaves  desolation  and  ruin 
in  its  track.  Within  a  twelvemonth  after  the  first  discovery 
of  gold,  the  credit  operations  of  the  citizens  of  the  territory 


1841.]  RAPID    IMMIGRATION.  439 

amounted  to  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  resting  for  sup- 
port upon  a  metallic  or  specie  basis  of  only  ten  millions. 
City  and  town  lots,  houses  and  farming  lands,  food  and  rai- 
ment, everything  that  man  needs  or  desires,  are  the  objects 
of  speculation.  What  will  be  the  result  of  all  this,  the  future 
only  can  determine.  Those  who  keep  aloof  from  the  whirl- 
pool, or  pause  in  time,  may  reap  a  rich  harvest ;  but  if 
California  herself,  or  the  older  states  in  the  Union  that  be- 
come too  intimately  connected  with  her,  are  ultimately  bene- 
fited, it  will  be  an  anomaly  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Yet  the  mineral  resources  of  California  are  unquestionably 
great ;  and  even  the  smallest  rivulets  that  course  down  the 
corrugated  sides  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  richly  impregnated 
with  gold,  silver,  and  platina.  But  although  these  deposits 
of  wealth  may  be  nearly,  or  quite  inexhaustible,  when  the 
treasures  which  have  been  accumulating  for  so  many  years 
near  the  surface  have  been  gathered,  as  they  soon  must  be, 
labor,  be  it  ever  so  industrious  and  enterprising,  will  reap  no 
more  abundant  harvests  at  the  placeras  of  California,  than,  if 
properly  applied,  it  can  obtain  from  the  rich  farming  lands  in 
the  Atlantic  states  and  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

(7.)  Previous  to  the  cession  of  Upper  California  to  the 
United  States,  there  were,  as  has  been  remarked,  something 
less  than  forty  thousand  persons  in  the  territory.  The  popu- 
lation is  now  estimated  at  over  one  hundred  thousand.  Up 
to  the  first  day  of  November,  1849,  about  five  hundred  ves- 
sels, containing  more  or  less  passengers,  besides  their  crews, 
had  arrived  at  San  Francisco  within  the  preceding  year ;  and 
there  were  at  that  time  upwards  of  two  hundred  vessels,  each 
having  its  cargo  of  living  freight,  on  their  way  from  the  At- 
lantic states.  Numerous  caravans  of  immigrants  have 
crossed  over  land,  and  adventurers  by  scores  have  gone  by 
way  of  Panama.  Around  Cape  Horn,  across  the  isthmus, 
and  over  the  desert  prairies  and  bleak  mountains  of  the  far 
west,  the  tide  has  swept  like  the  waters  of  the  sea.  Danger 
in  every  form  has  been  defied.  Animated  by  the  all-pervad- 
ing, if  not  unhallowed  thirst  for  gold — auri  sacra  fames — 


440  ADOPTION    OF    A    STATE    CONSTITUTION.  [1841. 

peril  and  hardship  have  been  cheerfully  encountered.  The 
ocean  tempest  has  lost  its  terrors  ;  the  vomito  of  New  Gre- 
nada is  supposed  no  longer  to  possess  the  power  to  harm  ;  and 
the  horrors  of  Indian  warfare  or  starvation,  both  equally 
dreaded  in  former  times,  no  more  affright  the  timid,  or  dis- 
courage the  weak-hearted,  as  they  wend  their  way,  faint  in 
body  but  stout  of  soul,  across  the  trackless  wastes  of  New 
Mexico  and  Deseret.  And  if,  perchance,  nature  at  length 
becomes  exhausted  and  gives  way  ere  the  glittering  prize  has 
been  clutched,  the  last  thoughts  of  the  wayfarer  may  dwell 
upon  the  home  he  has  left,  smiling  with  everything  that  could 
cheer  or  comfort  him,  and  the  sad  faces  and  sadder  hearts 
that  witnessed  his  departure,  yet  with  thern  are  mingled  feel- 
ings of  regret  that  he  was  unable  to  reach  the  land  of  promise 
before  him. 

It  might  naturally  be  expected,  that  the  population  of  Cali- 
fornia would  exhibit  a  mongrel  character.  Almost  every 
clime  and  creed  under  the  sun  has  its  representatives  there. 
Yet  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  and  one  highly  creditable  to  the 
immigrants,  that  the  state  of  society  in  the  main  has  been, 
and  now  is,  a  great  deal  better  than  could  be  looked  for  among 
such  an  incongruous  mass.  Outrages  and  excesses  have  been 
committed,  but  they  are  daily  becoming  less  frequent.  For 
several  months  the  citizens  governed  themselves,  in  a  degree, 
by  laws  arbitrarily  adopted,  yet  which  were  both  appropriate 
and  needful,  and  usually  administered  with  impartiality  and 
justice.  On  the  1st  day  of  September,  1849,  a  convention 
of  delegates  elected  in  the  different  districts,  in  pursuance  of 
a  proclamation  of  General  Riley,  then  acting  as  civil  and 
military  governor  of  the  territory,  assembled  at  Monterey,  and 
on  the  12th  day  of  October  following,  adopted  a  state  consti- 
tution, modelled,  in  all  its  general  features,  after  the  new 
constitution  of  the  state  of  New  York  ;  and  immediately  after 
the  adjournment  of  that  body,  all  the  necessary  steps  were 
taken  to  bring  the  question  of  their  admission  into  the  con- 
federacy before  the  national  Congress,  at  its  ensuing  session. 

(8.)  The  eastern  boundary  of  California   established  by 


1841]  GEOGRAPHICAL    DESCRIPTION.  441 

the  convention,  is  the  120th  meridian,  east  longitude  ;  but  the 
other  boundaries  were  left  unchanged.  The  surface  of  the 
country  near  the  ocean  is  much  diversified,  in  some  places 
rising  in  lofty  ranges  of  hills,  covered  with  patches  of  wild 
flowers,  and  grass,  and  low  shrubs,  and  at  others  spreading 
out  into  broad  plains,  intersected  with  valleys,  which  are 
usually  rich  and  fertile,  though  requiring  in  the  dry  season 
considerable  irrigation  to  render  them  highly  productive. 
North  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  the  coast  country  is 
still  more  broken  than  at  the  south,  but  it  is  well  adapted  for 
the  culture  of  grain  and  the  rearing  of  cattle.  From  forty 
to  fifty  miles  inland  is  the  Coast  Range,  which  is  the  first 
ridge  of  mountains,  and  the  continuation  of  the  central 
chain  of  Lower  California.  This  ridge  divides  into  several 
ranges  as  it  trends  to  the  north,  and  is  finally  lost  in  the 
Klamet  range  on  the  southern  borders  of  Oregon. 

Between  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which 
runs  nearly  along  the  120th  meridian,  the  country  consists 
of  extensive  plains  and  swelling  hills,  either  well-wooded,  or 
thickly  carpeted  with  wild  oats,  whose  yellow  waves  sweep 
far  up  the  sides  of  the  Snowy  Mountains.  In  the  midst  of 
this  section,  near  the  lower  end  of  California,  are  the  Tule 
lakes,  which  connect  with  the  San  Joaquin  in  the  rainy 
season.  That  river  has  a  northerly  course  of  from  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles,  and  unites  with  the 
Sacramento  in  Suisun  Bay.  The  Sacramento  comes  from 
the  north,  and  has  a  course  of  not  far  from  two  hun- 
dred miles  in  extent.  Both  these  streams  have  a  number 
of  affluents  which  bring  down  the  melted  snows  of  tho 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  heavy  rains  that  fall  during  the 
winter  months.  The  banks  of  the  two  larger  rivers  are 
low,  and  for  miles  above  and  below  the  head  of  Suisun  Bay, 
there  are  extensive  marshes  or  tulares,  covered  with  a  species 
of  bulrush,  called  tule,  which  are  overflowed  in  high  water, 
and  are  finely  situated  for  raising  rice. 

Besides  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin,  and  the 
Rio  Colorado  of  the  west,  which   forms  a  part  of  its  eastern 

19* 


442  HARBORS    AND    TOWNS.  [1841. 

boundary,  California  has  no  other  considerable  streams  ex- 
cept it  be  the  Rio  de  San  Buenaventura.  This  last  stream 
has  a  north-westerly  course  of  upwards  of  one  hundred 
miles,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  bay  of  Monterey. 

The  bay  of  San  Francisco  is  not  only  the  best  harbor  in 
California,  but  it  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  It  lies 
parallel  to  the  ocean,  at  a  distance  of  from  five  to  six  miles,  and 
is  connected  with  it  by  a  narrow  strait  from  two  to  four 
miles  in  width.  The  bay  is  about  forty-five  miles  long,  and 
varies  in  width  from  four  to  ten  miles.  It  affords  abundant 
anchorage  for  vessels  of  the  largest  class,  and  is  capable  of 
sheltering  the  navies  of  the  world  from  the  waves  and  tem- 
pests of  the  neighboring  ocean.  At  its  northern  extremity 
it  is  connected  by  a  small  strait  with  the  bay  of  San  Pablo, 
which  is  circular,  and  about  ten  miles  in  diameter.  The 
latter  is,  in  turn,  connected  with  Suisun  Bay,  into  which  the 
San  Joaquin  and  the  Sacramento  debouch,  by  the  Straits 
of  Karquinez.  Vessels  of  light  draught  can  ascend  the 
Sacramento  as  high  as  Sacramento  city.  The  San  Joaquin 
is  also  navigable,  in  like  manner,  for  some  distance,  varying 
with  the  different  stages  of  the  water. 

Monterey  has  a  bay,  or  roadstead,  which  is  sufficiently 
capacious,  and  affords  pretty  secure  anchorage  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  bight,  inside  of  a  line  drawn  from  Point 
Ano  Nuevo  through  Point  Pinos,  but  elsewhere  it  is  not 
protected  against  the  north-westerly  winds.  The  harbor  of 
San  Diego  is  a  semi-circular  indentation  of  the  coast ;  it  is 
protected  on  the  north  and  east  by  high  bluffs,  and  is  con- 
sidered perfectly  safe. 

Since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  towns  and  cities 
have  sprung  up  like  mushrooms,  and  it  would  be  useless 
and  unwise  to  attempt  to  describe  them,  as  the  changes  con- 
stantly taking  place  are  so  great,  and  of  such  a  character, 
that  a  description,  however  faithful  at  the  moment,  could 
scarcely  be  written  ere  it  would  prove  to  be  erroneous.  At 
the  time  of  the  cession  to  the  United  States,  the  only  places 
of  any  importance  in  the  territory,  were  Yerba  Bu6na,   or 


1841.]  CLIMATE.  448 

San  Francisco,  which  stands  on  the  west  bank  of  the  bay  of 
the  same  name,  just  below  the  opening  of  the  strait  leading 
to  the  ocean,  and  Monterey  and  San  Diego  on  the  coast. 
Ciudad  de  los  Angelos,  in  the  interior,  and  about  midway 
between  Monterey  and  San  Diego,  was  also  a  town  of  some 
consideration;  it  being  the  capital  of  the  two  Californias 
while  under  the  Mexican  sway.  All  these  places  have  come 
forward  during  the  past  year  with  astonishing  rapidity. 
But  little  more  than  twelve  months  ago,  either  of  them 
counted  its  population  by  hundreds,  but  now  they  are  num- 
bered in  thousands.  San  Francisco  has  outstripped  them 
all.  She  has  over  twenty-five  thousand  inhabitants ;  a 
dense  forest  of  masts  and  spars  may  be  witnessed  in  front 
of  her  wharfs ;  and  from  sunrise  till  sunset,  the  busy  hum 
of  a  commercial  town  resounds  upon  a  spot  whose  wild 
solitudes  at  a  very  recent  period  were  scarcely  disturbed  by 
the  footsteps  of  civilized  man.  The  most  important  towns 
which  have  sprung  up  since  the  commencement  of  the  gold 
excitement,  are  Sacramento  city,  at  the  junction  of  the 
American  Fork  and  the  Sacramento ;  Stockton,  on  the  San 
Joaquin ;  New  York-of-the-Pacific,  on  Suisun  Bay,  in  the 
peninsula  formed  between  the  two  rivers  at  their  junction, 
and  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation ;  and  Benicia,  which  lies 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  straits  of  Karquinez,  near  the 
entrance  into  Suisun  Bay,  a  distance  of  forty-five  miles 
from  San  Francisco. 

The  climate  of  California  is  variable,  but  not  unhealthy,  and 
most  of  the  diseases  that  prevail  are  not  produced  by  its  in- 
fluence. It  is  much  warmer,  of  course,  than  in  the  same 
latitude  on  the  Pacific;  and  at  the  south,  the  heat  is  some- 
times intense.  Near  the  Colorado,  the  thermometer  often 
rises  to  140°;  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento,  to  110°,  in 
the  shade.  Along  the  coast,  it  is  not  so  warm.  During  the 
dry  season,  from  the  1st  of  March  to  the  1st  of  November,  the 
mornings  are  clear,  and  the  heat  generally  intolerable;  but  at 
noon,  the  sky  becomes  overcast ;  the  strong  and  unpleasant, 
but   bracing  north-westerly  gales  set  in,  and  condense  the 


444  VEGETATION.  [1841. 

vapors  which  have  risen  during  the  morning,  and  the  ther- 
mometer falls  very  rapidly.  The  nights  are  almost  always 
cool.  During  the  rainy  months,  the  plains  and  low  grounds 
are  usually  enveloped  in  fogs  and  mists,  and  every  little 
arroyo  is  swollen  far  beyond  its  ordinary  limits,  while  the 
large  streams  roll  down  a  vast  flood  of  waters  to  the  ocean. 

(9.)  Among  the  principal  wild  animals  in  California,  are 
the  fierce  grizzly  bear,  the  antlered  elk,  the  black-tailed  deer, 
the  savage  panther  and  puma,  the  Californian  lion,  the  shy 
antelope,  and  the  noisy  coyote,  or  prairie  wolf.  The  buffalo 
is  an  entire  stranger  in  this  quarter.  Hares,  squirrels,  rab- 
bits, and  marmots,  are  abundant.  The  streams  abound  in 
fine-flavored  fish  J  and  the  delicate  and  luscious  salmon  are 
quite  plenty.  Among  the  feathered  tribes  are  the  eagle, 
hawk,  vulture,  crow,  pheasant,  partridge,  goose,  duck,  peli- 
can, curlew,  crane,  turkey,  pigeon,  and  plover. 

M.  de  Mofras,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  scientific  travel- 
lers who  have  visited  this  country  >  insists,  that  all  that  part  of 
California  lying  between  the  coast  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  is 
"of  admirable  fertility,  and  perfectly  proper  for  colonization."* 
Captain  Wilkes  also  informs  us,  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is 
so  great,  that  eighty  bushels  of  wheat  is  the  average  yield,  and 
that  sometimes  one  hundred  and  twenty  bushels — though  this 
is  not  very  common — are  obtained.!  But  these  statements  must 
be  taken  with  some  degree  of  reservation.  The  hills  and  up- 
lands afford  the  finest  pasturage ;  but  they  are  not  calculated 
to  produce  anything  else  except  gramineous  plants.  The 
elevated  plains  are  covered  with  immense  fields  of  wild  oats 
and  wild  mustard,  of  a  most  thrifty  growth,  which  often 
climb  up  the  sides  of  the  mountains  to  a  considerable  height. 
The  soil  of  the  low  grounds  is  a  rich,  dark  loam,  that  be- 
comes dry  like  powder  in  the  summer  season ;  but  the  winter 
and  spring  rains  soon  convert  them  into  blooming  gardens 
Irrigation  will  be  needed  all  over  the  territory,  in  order  to 

*  Exploration  du  Territoire  de  l'Oregon,  des  Califomies,  et  de  la  Mer  Ver* 
meille,  Tom.  II,  p.  40. 
•f  Narrative  of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  Vol.  V,  pp.  158,  159. 


1841.]  FRUITS    AND   FLOWERS.  445 

render  agricultural  enterprises  eminently  successful;  but 
where  this  is  practicable,  abundant  crops  will  be  obtained. 
The  tule  marshes  could  readily  be  converted  into  rice  fields, 
and  the  interval  lands  will  produce  most  of  the  cereal  grains 
with  but  a  tolerable  culture.  Blue  flax  and  hemp  are  well 
suited  to  the  country.  In  southern  California,  the  vine  (vitis 
vinifera)  thrives  wonderfully,  and  great  quantities  of  brandy 
and  wine  are  made  :  the  volcanic  soil  is  well  adapted  for  vine- 
yards ;  and  the  attention  of  the  inhabitants  will  probably  be 
still  more  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  grape,  whenever 
the  excitement  in  regard  to  the  gold  deposits  has  subsided. 

California  cannot  be  termed  well- wooded,  although  the  high- 
lying  sections,  between  the  Pacific  and  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
are  dotted  quite  frequently  with  forests  of  excellent  timber, 
and  the  flanks  of  the  mountains,  and  the  deep  canons  open- 
ing into  the  valleys  beneath,  are  fringed  here  and  there  with 
strips  of  woodland.  The  courses  of  the  streams,  also,  are 
usually  lined  with  belts  of  stately  trees,  or  thickets  of  shrubby 
undergrowth.  The  most  valuable  timber  trees  are  the  live- 
oak,  ash,  pine,  cedar,  cypress,  sycamore,  willow,  and  cotton- 
wood.  Of  the  fruit-trees,  pears,  apples,  plums,  peaches, 
oranges,  limes,  figs,  and  olives,  thrive  with  great  luxuriance, 
where  they  receive  proper  care  and  attention.  The  pitahaya 
[cactus  pitajaya)  is  very  abundant,  and  bears  a  most  delicious 
fruit.  All  the  vegetables  found  in  the  same  latitudes  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  flourish  here  equally  well. 

The  country  is  rich  in  flowering  plants  and  creepers. 
Beautiful  mosses  exhibit  their  long  trails  from  the  tops  of  the 
highest  trees,  and  the  mistletoe  shelters  itself  beneath  the 
shade  of  the  noble  oak,  climbs  up  its  rugged  trunk,  and 
nestles  amid  its  tufted  canopy.  Among  the  grasses  on  the 
damp  flats,  and  the  wild  oats  of  the  hilly  slopes  and  moun- 
tain-sides, are  mingled  the  most  valuable  bulbous  roots,  and 
the  brightest  and  sweetest  flowers.  There  are  tulips  and 
hyacinths;  the  lily  and  the  narcissus;  golden  poppies  a.nd 
delicately  tinted  daisies  ;  crimson  and  scarlet  pinks  ;  the  fra» 
grant  graphalium;  and  the  medicinal   canchalagua.      And 


446  DEPARTURE    FROM    SAN    FRANCISCO.  [1842, 

their  beauty,  too,  is  enhanced  in  a  great  degree,  by  the  fine 
contrast  presented  by  the  snow-crowned  peaks  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  that  glisten  like  burnished  silver  on  the  very  border 
of  the  dark  line  of  vegetation,  and,  more  than  all,  by  the 
beautiful  ultra-marine  tints,  which,  in  a  clear  day,  dye  the 
whole  landscape  from  the  ocean  surf  to  the  loftiest  mountain 
height. 

(10.)  All  the  vessels  of  the  Exploring  Squadron  having 
assembled  at  San  Francisco,  and  the  surveys  having  been 
completed,  orders  were  given  to  make  ready  for  sea  on  the 
28th  of  October.  On  the  first  day  of  November,  they  sailed 
out  of  the  bay,  and  proceeded  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where 
it  was  necessary  to  stop  in  order  to  complete  the  supplies 
required  for  the  return  voyage  to  the  United  States.  The 
whole  Squadron  were  safely  anchored  in  the  inner  harbor  of 
Honolulu,  early  in  the  morning  of  the  18th  of  November,  and 
on  the  27th  instant,  the  Vincennes  and  tender  took  their 
final  departure  for  Manilla,  where  they  arrived  on  the  13th 
day  of  January,  1842.  The  Porpoise  and  Oregon  were  di- 
rected to  examine  the  shoals  and  reefs  west  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  then  to  proceed,  through  the  China  seas,  to 
Singapore. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

(1.)  Manilla.  Its  Inhabitants.  Commerce. — (2.)  The  Philippines. — (3.)  The 
Sooloo  Islands.  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Inhabitants.  Productions. — 
(4.)  Singapore.  Character  of  its  Population.  Trade. — (5.)  Voyage  Home. 
Cape  Town.    Arrival  in  the  United  States. 

(1.)  Manilla,  or  Manila,  is  situated  on  the  island  of  Luzon, 
upon  the  east  side  of  the  bay  of  Manilla,  and  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  mouth  of  the  Pasig,  a  small  river  that  winds 
down  through  a  narrow  plain,  terminating  on  the  east  in  swell- 
ing hills,  which  gradually  rise  into  lofty  mountains,  clothed 
to  the  summit  with  the  rich  vegetation  of  the  Orient.  It 
is  built  in  a  circular  form,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  and 
is  connected  with  its  suburbs  on  the  right  bank,  by  a  hand- 
some stone  bridge,  one  hundred  and  forty-nine  varas  in  length, 
by  eight  in  breadth.  It  is  surrounded  by  strong  walls,  with 
six  gates,  and  a  broad  ditch ;  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
there  is  a  small  battery,  and  near  the  north-western  extremity 
of  the  town,  the  more  imposing  citadel  of  San  Jago. 

Most  of  the  houses  in  the  city  proper,  which  is  only  about 
two  miles  in  circumference,  are  firmly  built  of  the  volcanic 
tufa,  the  prevalent  formation  in  the  vicinity.  They  are  con- 
structed after  the  Spanish  fashion,  with  azoteas,  or  flat  roofs, 
and  balustrades,  and  are  garnished  with  jutting  balconies  and 
shady  verandas.  Few  of  them  exceed  two  stories  in  height, 
on  account  of  the  frequent  occurrence  of  earthquakes.  The 
windows  are  protected  by  blinds  or  shutters,  in  which  are  in- 
serted, instead  of  glass,  thin  pieces  of  semi-transparent  shell, 
a  species  of  placuna,  which,  though  not  admitting  the  light  so 
freely,  are  valuable  in  repelling  the  fierce  tropical  heat,  and, 
unless  the  dark-eyed  senoritas  of  this  second  Lima  are  not 


448  PUBLIC    BUILDINGS    AND    STREETS.  [1842. 

belied,  in  permitting  them  to  watch  the  passers-by  without 
being  themselves  visible.  In  some  of  the  suburbs,  the  houses 
are  light,  airy  structures,  built  wholly  of  bamboo,  in  the 
Eastern  mode,  and  resting  on  thick  poles  eight  or  ten  feet 
above  the  ground. 

Churches  and  monastic  establishments  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous  structures  of  a  public  character  in  the  city.*  The 
cathedral  and  archbishop's  palace  are  conspicuous  buildings 
There  is  also  a  missionary  college,  and  several  hospitals  and 
orphan  asylums.  On  one  side  of  the  plaza  mayor,  is  the 
government-house,  or  palace,  in  which  are  the  residences  of  the 
captain  general,  and  the  public  officers.  The  square  is  about 
one  hundred  yards  in  breadth  and  length,  and  in  its  centre 
there  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Charles  IV,  mounted  on  a  marble 
pedestal.  The  custom-house,  or  aduana,  is  a  large  building, 
constructed  at  great  expense,  but  entirely  out  of  proportion  to 
the  business  transacted  in  it,  and  is  tenanted  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time,  only  by  the  numerous  officials,  whose  high- 
sounding  names  and  formal  politeness  always  attract  the 
notice  of  the  stranger,  and  are  quite  sure  to  cause  many  an 
involuntary  smile.  On  the  great  square  is  one  of  the  royal 
cigar  manufactories,  in  which  three  hundred  and  fifty  males 
and  two  thousand  females  are  employed  ;  and  in  the  suburb 
of  Bidondo,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  there  is  a  simi- 
lar establishment,  in  which  there  are  said  to  be  eight  thousand 
females  constantly  kept  at  work.  Each  female  makes  about 
two  hundred  cigars  in  a  day.  The  manufacture  is  a  gov- 
ernment monopoly,  and  the  annual  revenue  derived  from  the 
two  establishments  is  over  half  a  million  of  dollars. 

The  streets  are  well  laid  out,  and  have  carriage-ways,  har- 
dened by  a  mixture  of  quartz  with  the  loamy  soil.  There 
are  paths,  also,  for  persons  travelling  on  foot — an  unusual 
mode  of  conveyance,  by  the  way,  with  the  aristocracy  of  "  the 
celebrated  and  forever  royal  city  of  Manilla,"  by  which  son- 
orous distinction  the  capital  of  the  Philippines  is  honored  in 

*  This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  consider  that  Manilla  contains  up- 
wards of  seven  thousand  clergymen,  either  natives  or  Europeans. 


1842.]  population.  449 

the  charter  of  1571.  From  the  river,  there  are  a  number  of 
side  cuts  diverging  in  every  direction,  that  extend  up  into 
the  town  and  suburbs,  like  the  canals  of  Venice,  which  serve 
instead  of  streets,  and  are  constantly  filled  with  bancas,  or 
small  boats,  plying  to  and  fro,  from  one  quarter  of  the  city  to 
the  other. 

Outside  the  walls,  and  beyond  the  suburbs,  are  fine  car- 
riage drives,  bordered  with  rice-grounds  and  cotton  planta- 
tions, with  wide-spreading  fields  covered  with  the  fragrant 
coffee-bush,  with  clumps  of  graceful  cocoas,  whose  long 
branches  bend  with  the  weight  of  the  ripening  fruit,  with 
gardens  blooming  with  flowers  and  redolent  of  perfume,  and 
with  beautiful  groves,  where  the  areca,*  the  mango,  and  the 
orange,  mingle  their  branches  lovingly  together,  and 

"  The  tamarind  from  the  dew 
Sheathes  its  young  fruit,  yet  green." 

Within  the  limits  of  the  city-proper,  there  are  only  twelve 
or  fourteen  thousand  inhabitants  ;  but  the  total  population, 
inclusive  of  all  the  suburbs,  is  estimated  at  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand,  much  the  larger  proportion  of  whom 
are  Tagalas,  or  natives,  who  belong  to  the  Malay  race.  With 
these  are  intermingled  perhaps  five  thousand  Spaniards  and 
other  Europeans,  great  numbers  of  Chinese,  Malays,  Papuan 
negroes,  and  the  motley  descendants  of  all  the  different  races. 
The  Spanish  residents  have  given  the  tone  and  character  to  the 
society,  and  the  higher  classes  spend  their  time  nearly  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  occupying  a  similar  position  in  the 
towns  of  old  Spain.  The  men  transact  a  little  business,  it 
may  be,  in  the  morning,  while  their  wives  are  engaged  at  their 
toilets,  or  sleeping  or  lolling  at  home.  After  dinner,  both  sexes 
resort  to  the  prado,  for  a  drive  or  a  promenade,  amid  the  groups 
of  smokers  and  gamblers  who  may  always  be  seen  lounging 
there  ;  and  the  evening  is  spent  at  the  gay  tertulia,  with  its 
guitars,  its  dances  and  dulces,  its  wines  and  lemonade. 

*  The  fruit  of  the  areca  is  the  betel  nut,  which  is  quite  generally  chewed  by 
the  natives  in  the  East  Indies,  with  the  leaf  of  the  pepper-betel,  and  lime. 


450  THE    PHILIPPINES.  [1842. 

The  Europeans  and  their  descendants  dress  principally 
after  the  Spanish  fashion,  but  the  ladies  are  so  fond  of  dis- 
playing their  finely-moulded  arms  and  ankles,  that  sleeves 
and  stockings  are  usually  at  a  discount.  The  costume  of  the 
other  classes  is  a  sort  of  mixture  of  Chinese  and  Malay, 
blended  together  in  different  shades  and  forms. 

Manilla  possesses  considerable  commerce  ;  it  is  the  capital 
of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  the  East,  and  the  only  port  in 
the  Philippines  with  which  foreign  vessels  are  allowed  to 
trade.*  Its  exports  amount  anually  to  over  two  millions  of 
dollars,  and  the  imports  are  about  one  million  seven  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  The  former  consist  mainly  of  sugar, 
hempen  stuffs,  rice,  indigo,  sapan  and  other  woods,  tobacco, 
cigars,  hides,  ebony,  coffee,  cotton,  and  tortoise-shell.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  imported  are  iron,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactured 
goods.  The  harbor  of  Manilla,  which  is  formed  by  the  river 
Pasig,  is  accessible  to  merchant  vessels  of  six  hundred  tons 
burden,  and  those  of  three  hundred  tons  can  ascend  as  high 
up  as  the  bridge.  Beyond  the  bridge  the  stream  is  navigable 
for  small  boats  to  the  lake  in  which  it  rises,  a  distance  of 
about  nine  miles.  Large  vessels  anchor  in  the  roads,  at  from 
one  to  two  miles  off  the  shore,  and  discharge  their  cargoes 
into  lighters,  except  during  the  prevalence  of  the  south-west- 
ern monsoons,  in  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber, when  they  are  obliged  to  anchor  at  Cavite,  six  or  seven 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  they  are  sheltered 
by  a  long  neck  of  land  from  the  fury  of  the  winds. 

(2.)  The  Philippine  Islands  were  discovered  by  Magellan,  in 
1521,  and  were  first  claimed  by  the  Spanish  in  1565.  They 
are  the  most  valuable  colonial  possession  belonging  to  Spain, 
with  the  exception  of  the  island  of  Cuba.  They  lie  between 
the  parallels  of  5°  and  20°  north  latitude,  and  the  117th  and 
124th  meridians  of  eastern  longitude ;  being  separated  on  the 
north,  from  the  Batanes  and  Basher  islands,  by  the  Balintang 

*  Previous  to  the  Spanish  invasion,  Manilla  was  a  native  town  of  some  im- 
portance. It  was  taken  in  1571,  when  the  Spaniards  made  it  the  capital  of 
their  Eastern  possessions. 


1842.]  PRODUCTIONS.  451 

channel,  and  on  the  south,  from  the  Sooloo  archipelago,  by 
the  strait  of  Basillan.  The  total  area  of  all  the  islands  is  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  square  miles,  and  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  is  supposed  to  exceed  three  millions— com- 
posed, in  great  part,  of  Tagalas,  Chinese,  Malays,  and  Papuan 
Negroes,  with  comparatively  few  Europeans.  Luzon,  the 
largest  of  the  group,  is  of  irregular  shape,  and  is  about  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles  in  length,  and  varies  in  width,  from  ten,  to 
one  hundred  and  forty  miles.  The  other  principal  islands  are 
Mindoro,  Samar,  Panay,  Magindanao,  and  Palawan,  all  lying 
to  the  south  of  Luzon. 

These  islands  are  all  of  volcanic  formation,  and  on  Luzon 
there  are  several  active  volcanoes.  The  coasts  are  bold  and 
rocky,  but  indented  with  numerous  bays  and  gulfs.  In  the 
interior  there  are  lofty  mountainous  ridges,  the  peaks  of  which 
sometimes  attain  an  elevation  of  six  thousand  feet.  But  the 
proportion  of  arable  land  is  large,  and  is  usually  of  great  fer- 
tility. The  hilly  districts  are  well  wooded  ;  and  the  savannas 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  numerous  lakes,  of  which  most  of  the 
islands  have  several,  and  the  plains  and  valleys  along  the 
rivers  and  small  streams,  are  covered  with  a  deluge  of  vegeta- 
tion— with  succulent  grasses  and  perfumed  flowers,  with  aro- 
matic shrubs  and  luscious  fruits,  and  with  all  the  rich  products 
of  a  tropical  clime.  Most  conspicuous  among  the  last  are  the 
sugar-cane,  rice,  indigo,  tobacco,  coffee,  hemp,  millet,  maize, 
and  the  shrub-cotton.  The  sugar  of  the  Philippines  is  excel- 
lent, and  is  the  most  important  article  of  exportation.  Of  rice 
there  are  several  varieties,  both  for  the  uplands  and  the  low 
grounds  ;  this  is  the  chief  reliance  of  the  inhabitants  for  food,  and 
large  quantities  of  it  are  shipped  to  China.  Tobacco  is  well 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  but  its  production  is  entirely 
controlled  by  the  government,  as  it  is  allowed  to  be  manufac- 
tured only  into  cigars.  Of  the  hemp,  which  is  obtained  from 
a  species  of  plantain  called  abaca,  excellent  cordage  and  a 
kind  of  strong,  coarse  cloth,  are  made  by  the  Malays. 

Bananas,  cocoas,  shaddocks,  pine-apples,  the  bread-fruit,  the 
areca,  the  clove-tree,  and  the  mango,  are  in  great  plenty,  and 


452  CLIMATE.  [1842 

are  either  indigenous  or  have  been  introduced  and  cultivated 
with  success.  Sago,  of  a  very  fine  quality,  is  produced  in 
abundance  on  Luzon,  but  is  not  exported  to  any  great  extent. 
Sapan-wood  and  bamboo  are  the  principal  timber  trees.  The 
former  is  a  species  of  Csesalpinia ;  it  is  highly  valued  as 
a  dye-wood,  and  in  its  color  and  properties  resembles  Brazil- 
wood. The  bamboo  grows  to  an  extraordinary  size,  the  bolls 
of  the  trees  often  being  as  thick  as  a  man's  thigh. 

There  are  no  beasts  of  prey  on  the  islands,  but  caymans 
are  plentiful  in  the  rivers  and  lakes.  Wild  fowl,  and  the  do- 
mestic kinds,  are  quite  numerous.  There  are  also  great 
quantities  of  swallows,  whose  nests  are  esteemed  edible  by  the 
Chinese  and  Malays,  and  form  an  important  article  of  traffic. 
The  buffalo  is  a  native  of  the  islands,  and  was  once  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil;  but  latterly 
oxen  have  been  introduced,  as  the  former  was  found  to  be  too 
sluggish  in  his  movements,  by  the  industrious  Malays,  who  are 
the  principal  tillers  of  the  ground.  Horses,  of  a  small  but  hardy 
breed,  goats,  sheep,  and  pigs,  are  raised  in  considerable  num- 
bers. All  kinds  of  edible  fish,  the  pearl  oyster,  and  the  biche 
de  mer,  abound  in  the  vicinity  of  the  islands,  and  the  land 
tortoise  is  also  very  abundant. 

On  account  of  the  great  extent  of  these  islands,  the  climate 
is  quite  variable,  notwithstanding  they  lie  so  near  the  Equator. 
At  Manilla,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  hot  season,  from 
August  to  October,  is  about  82°,  though  the  heat  is  some- 
times exceedingly  oppressive  to  those  unaccustomed  to  a  tropi- 
cal climate ;  and  for  the  remaining  part  of  the  year,  the  ther- 
mometer ranges  but  little  above  or  below  70°.  The  south- 
western monsoon  always  brings  an  abundance  of  rain,  and  the 
savannas  and  valleys  along  the  rivers  are  then  inundated  with 
water ;  to  which  circumstance  the  great  prevalence  of  agues 
and  dysentery,  especially  in  the  marshy  districts,  is  attributed. 
While  the  north-eastern  monsoon  continues,  it  is  usually  quite 
dry.  From  May  till  December,  Luzon  is  subject  to  be  vis- 
ited by  the  destructive  typhoons  of  the  Qhinese  Seas.  Ma- 
nilla has  several  times  suffered  from   earthquakes,   though 


1842.]  productions.  453 

they  have   rarely  damaged  any  other  buildings  except  the 
churches. 

Nearly  all  the  trade  of  the  Philippines  is  carried  on  through 
Manilla,  the  extent  of  whose  commerce  has  been  already 
mentioned.  Besides  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  government,  which  gives  employment  to  so 
many  of  the  native  females,  great  numbers  of  them  occupy 
themselves,  principally  at  home,  in  weaving  cotton  and  hempen 
cloths  and  silks,  and  in  plaiting  rice  straw,  and  splints  of 
wood,  into  hats,  cigar-cases,  and  matting,  of  various  patterns. 
From  a  species  of  pine-apple,  produced  in  abundance  on  the 
island  of  Panay,  a  thin,  gossamer  fabric,  called  pina,  of  a  yel- 
lowish color,  is  manufactured  also  by  the  women.  The  web 
of  the  pina  is  so  fine,  that  it  is  necessary  to  weave  it  in  a 
room  from  which  all  currents  of  air  are  excluded,  by  means 
of  gauze  screens  placed  in  the  windows.  It  is  richly  embroi- 
dered, and  made  into  dresses,  scarfs,  caps,  collars,  cuffs,  and 
pocket-handkerchiefs,  which  are  very  beautiful,  and  highly  ex- 
pensive, and  much  sought  after  by  foreigners  and  residents 
who  possess  the  means  to  purchase  them. 

The  Philippines  are  nominally  under  the  dominion  of  Spain, 
and  her  authority  is  exerted  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  group.  Two  of  the  largest  islands,  however,  Palawan  and 
Magindanao,  are  chiefly  inhabited  by  Malays  and  Papuans, 
who  have  never  been  subjected  by  the  Spanish,  and  claim  to 
be  entirely  independent  of  them,  acknowledging  no  allegiance 
except  to  their  own  chiefs.  The  group  is  divided  into  thirty 
provinces,  sixteen  of  which  are  On  the  island  of  Luzon.  At 
the  head  of  the  government,  as  the  representative  of  the  Span- 
ish sovereign,  is  the  captain-general,  or  governor,  who  resides 
at  Manilla,  and  deputes  his  authority  to  lieutenant-governors 
on  the  other  important  islands.  Every  province  has  its 
alcalde,  and  is  sub-divided  into  pueblos,  each  of  which  has  its 
separate  intendant. 

(3.)  But  little  time  was  spent  by  the  American  vessels  at 
Manilla.  They  left  the  bay  on  the  evening  of  the  21st  of 
January,  and  proceeded  to  the  southward.     Passing  through 


454  THE    SOOLOO    ISLANDS.  [1842. 

the  straits  of  Mindoro,  the  tender  directed  her  course  to- 
wards Singapore,  and  the  Vincennes  bore  away  for  the 
Sooloo  archipelago,  the  survey  of  which,  as  far  as  was  prac- 
ticable, was  one  of  the  objects  of  the  expedition ;  and  on  the 
3d  day  of  February  she  came  to  anchor  in  Soung  Harbor, 
at  the  island  of  Sooloo,  in  latitude  6°  01'  N.  and  longitude 
120°  55'  51"  E. 

The  Sooloo  Islands  extend  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
between  the  4th  and  7th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and 
120°  and  123°  eastern  longitude.  There  are  about  sixty 
different  islands,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  Sooloo,  the  largest 
and  most  important,  like  a  hen  in  the  midst  of  her  brood. 
The  population  of  the  group  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand.  The  inhabitants  are  of  the  Malay  race.  Their 
complexion  is  of  a  light  tawny  color,  and  their  hair  black, 
soft,  and  thick.  They  are  tall,  and  well-formed,  and  have 
tolerably  fine  features.  In  character  they  are  not  courageous, 
yet  they  are  confirmed  thieves  and  pirates.  They  are  pas- 
sionate and  treacherous,  and  much  addicted  to  sensual  pleas- 
ures, and  to  smoking  opium  and  chewing  the  betel  nut. 
Most  of  them  are  Mohammedans,  and  their  sovereign  is  called 
a  sultan  ;  his  authority  is  limited,  however,  by  the  power  and 
influence  possessed  by  the  subordinate  chiefs,  who  are  called 
datus. 

In  their  manners  and  customs  the  Sooloos  differ  but  little 
from  the  other  nations  in  the  East  Indies.  They  build  their 
houses  of  bamboo,  elevated  on  poles  if  near  the  water  side, 
or  imbosomed  amid  thickets  of  cocoas.  Their  dress  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Chinese,  consisting  in  the  main  of  loose 
calico  gowns,  silk  sashes,  wide  breeches  and  slippers ;  the 
attire  of  a  man  not  being  considered  complete  unless  he  has 
a  huge  kreese,  or  knife,  stuck  in  his  belt,  in  a  wooden  scab- 
bard. Polygamy  is  not  generally  practiced,  though  the  sul- 
tan has  a  number  of  wives  of  whom  he  is  quite  proud.  The 
women  are  not  generally  celebrated  for  their  chastity,  yet  it 
is  said  that  they  possess  great  influence  over  their  husbands. 

Sago  is  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the  islands,  and 


1842.J  TREATY   WITH    THE    SULTAN.  455 

is  the  chief  article  of  food  upon  which  the  inhabitants  sub- 
sist. All  the  tropical  fruits  and  plants  flourish  here  in  great 
luxuriance  and  beauty.  Rice,  sweet  potatoes,  and  yams,  of 
the  finest  quality,  are  very  abundant.  The  commerce  of  the 
islands  is  principally  carried  on  with  the  neighboring  islands 
of  Celebes,  Mindanao,  and  Borneo,  and  occasionally  with  the 
Chinese  traders  who  visit  the  archipelago.  The  most  im- 
portant products  which  they  have  for  trade  are  pearls, 
mother-of-pearl,  and  cowries.  The  cowry  is  the  shell  of  a 
small  muscle,  {cyprece  moneta),  of  an  oval  shape,  and 
usually  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long.  It  is  extensively 
used  throughout  the  East  Indies,  instead  of  small  coin, 
though  the  value  affixed  to  the  shells  is  but  small,  being  only 
about  three  cents  per  pound.* 

Captain  Wilkes  found  himself  so  limited  in  time,  that  he 
was  unable  to  remain  but  for  two  or  three  days  at  Soung. 
As  this  was  the  residence  of  the  sultan,  he  had  an  inter- 
view with  him,  and  succeeded  in  concluding  a  treaty  pro- 
viding for  the  protection  of  American  merchant  vessels  trading 
in  this  quarter  against  the  attacks  of  the  Sooloo  pirates,  and 
from  molestation  and  ill-treatment  when  they  touched  at  the 
islands.  Little  faith  can  be  placed  on  the  ability  or  disposi- 
tion of  the  sultan  to  control  the  crews  of  the  piratical  proas, 
but  if  the  first  infraction  of  the  treaty  be  visited  with  severe 
and  speedy  punishment,  a  most  salutary  effect  will,  without 
doubt,  be  produced.  The  Vincennes  left  Soung  Harbor  on  the 
6th  of  February,  and  crossing  the  beautiful  Sooloo  sea,  whose 
waters  are  rarely  disturbed  by  the  swell  of  the  ocean,  passed 
through  the  straits  of  Balabac,  and  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
19th  instant  joined  the  other  vessels  of  the  Squadron  then 
lying  at  anchor  in  Singapore  Roads. 

(4.)  Singapore  is  one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
emporiums,  or  entrepots  in  the  East.  It  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  and  was  purchased  of  the  Sultan  of  Johore  by  the 
East  India  company,  in  1819.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  side 
of  a  small  island  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay  pen- 

*  Cowries  are  found  in  great  plenty  everywhere  in  the  Indian  seas. 


456  SINGAPORE.  [1842. 

insula,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strait,  one 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  width,  in  latitude  1°  17'  N.,  and  longi- 
tude 103°  5V  E.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  are  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  merchants  and  the  military  cantonments  ;  the 
Malay  quarter  is  on  the  east,  and  the  Chinese  quarter,  which 
is  the  business  part  of  the  city,  on  the  west.  The  streets  are 
well  laid  out,  and  all  the  better  class  of  houses  are  built  of 
brick.  The  only  public  buildings  of  any  importance  are  the 
government  house,  jail,  custom-house,  the  Armenian  church, 
the  Missionary  chapel,  and  the  Singapore  Institution,  founded 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  instruction  in  the  Eastern  lan- 
guages. 

The  island  on  which  the  town  is  situated  is  composed  prin- 
cipally of  laterite,  sandstone,  and  granite.  Iron  ore  is  abun- 
dant, and  tin  is  also  said  to  exist.  The  island  is  twenty-seven 
miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  eleven  miles  wide.  The 
surface  is  for  the  most  part  low  and  undulating,  here  and 
there  rising  into  dome-shaped  hills,  whose  summits  are  ster- 
ile, but  whose  slopes  are  thickly  covered  with  jungle  patches, 
while  the  intermediate  plains  and  valleys  are  carpeted  with  a 
most  profuse  vegetation,  whose  freshness  and  beauty  are  pre- 
served throughout  the  year  by  the  frequent  showers.  The 
climate  is  hot,  but  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  unusually 
limited,  being  only  from  71°  to  89°.  Nutmegs,  coffee,  pep- 
per, and  gambier  catechu,  thrive  very  well  on  the  island,  but 
the  clove  does  not  seem  adapted  to  the  soil  or  climate.  Most 
of  the  principal  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  are  raised  in 
considerable  quantities.  There  are  no  quadrupeds  on  the 
island,  except  a  few  small  deer,  the  otter,  the  porcupine, 
one  or  two  others  of  no  great  importance,  and  the  domestic 
animals  that  have  been  introduced.  Birds  and  reptiles  are 
quite  plentiful,  but  the  swarms  of  insects  that  usually  con- 
stitute so  great  an  annoyance  in  Eastern  countries  are  un- 
known. White  ants,  however,  are  abundant,  and  exceedingly 
destructive  to  the  crops  in  the  interior. 

There  are  about  thirty  thousand  inhabitants  on  the  island, 
three  fourths  of  whom  are  Chinese  and  Malays,  and  the  re- 


1842.]  VOYAGE    HOME.  457 

mainder  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies  with  a  few  Europe- 
ans. Every  variety  of  costume  is  witnessed  in  the  streets, 
and  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  differ  as 
widely  as  their  dress.  Chinese  and  Malay  artisans  pursue 
their  occupations  in  the  streets  of  Singapore,  and  the  salt 
river  or  inlet  on  which  the  town  is  situated,  is  crowded  with 
junks  and  sampans,  all  freighted  with  their  living  cargoes. 
The  principal  language  spoken  among  business  men  is  the 
Malay,  though  a  majority  of  the  shopkeepers,  and  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  laboring  population,  are  Chinese. 

It  is  chiefly,  perhaps  only,  as  the  entrepot  for  the  com- 
merce of  the  adjacent  countries,  that  Singapore  possesses  so 
much  importance.  It  is  diminutive  in  area  ;  produces  but 
few  articles  of  any  moment ;  manufactures  nothing  except 
pearl  sago,  agricultural  implements  and  arms,  in  small  quan- 
tities, and  consumes  but  little, — yet  it  is  situated  directly  on 
the  track  of  communication  between  the  commercial  towns 
of  eastern  and  western  Asia,  and  its  annual  imports  and  ex- 
ports each  amount  to  not  far  from  seven  millions  of  dollars. 

(5.)  "While  at  Singapore,  an  examination  was  made  into 
the  condition  of  the  Flying  Fish,  when  it  was  found  that  she 
was  totally  unfit  to  make  the  voyage  home,  whereupon  orders 
were  reluctantly  given  by  the  commander  of  the  Squadron 
to  advertise  her  for  sale  at  public  auction.  This  was  accord- 
ingly done,  though  much  to  the  regret  of  those  who  had  ac- 
companied her  through  so  many  scenes,  and  shared  with  her 
so  many  perils. 

The  crew  of  the  tender  having  been  transferred  to  the  other 
vessels,  and  the  necessary  stores  obtained  for  the  passage 
home,  the  little  fleet,  now  consisting  of  only  the  Vincennes 
and  Porpoise  originally  belonging  to  the  Squadron,  and  the 
brig  Oregon,  sailed  from  Singapore  on  the  26th  day  of  Feb- 
ruary. Passing  through  the  Straits  of  Rhio,  Banca,  and 
Sunda,  they  entered  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  6th  day  of 
March.  Gladly  the  heads  of  the  vessels  were  now  turned  to 
the  west,  and  all  on  board,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest, 
hailed  with  joy  the  freshening  breezes  that  bore  them  rapidly 

20* 


458  ARRIVAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES.  [18421 

onward  to  the  homes  and  hearts  beyond  the  Atlantic  which 
they  well  knew  would  almost  leap  to  welcome  them.  Find- 
ing that  the  Vincennes  made  more  rapid  progress  than  her 
consorts,  Captain  Wilkes  parted  from  them  on  the  7th  in- 
stantr  having  given  orders  to  their  commanders  to  touch  at 
Rio  Janeiro  on  their  homeward  route,  while  he  proceeded  di- 
rect to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  the  Vincennes  came  to  anchor  in  Table 
Bay,  amidst  the  fleet  of  boats  always  moving  busily  hither 
and  thither  in  this  harbor,  and  within  view  of  the  dark,  red- 
dish battlements,  and  noble  outlines  of  Table  Mountain,  upon 
which  the  Titans  might  easily  have  taken  their  repast,  of  the 
pretty  straw  colored  cottages  at  its  base  surrounded  by  a  rich 
garniture  of  foliage  and  flowers,  the  short  and  dwarfish  houses 
or  "  lockers"  strung  along  the  beach,  the  frowning  castle 
with  its  mud  walls  and  white  tower,  the  long  ox-teams  hitched 
to  the  rude  wagons  with  their  gipsy  tents,  and  the  groups  of 
Malay  boys  and  corlies  with  their  red  kerchiefs  and  funnel- 
shaped  straw  hats,  that  form  the  materiel  and  personnel  of 
Cape  Town.  But  few  days  were  spent  here  ;  and  on  the  17th 
instant,  the  Vincennes  again  got  under  way.  On  the  1st  of 
May,  she  arrived  oft*  St.  Helena,  at  which  the  Porpoise  and 
Oregon  had  previously  touched.  Delaying  but  for  a  short 
time  at  this  island,  she  soon  shaped  her  course  for  the  United 
States,  and  on  the  afternoon  of  the  10th  day  of  June,  1842, 
was  cozily  moored  at  the  Brooklyn  navy  yard,  where  the 
Porpoise  and  Oregon  also  arrived  within  a  few  days  of  each 
other, — thus  terminating  in  safety,  though  it  had  been  check- 
ered with  divers  vicissitudes,  their  adventurous  cruise  of  four 
years'  duration* 


PART  II. 

EXPEDITION  TO  THE  DEAD  SEA 

AND  THE  RIVER  JORDAN, 


CHAPTER  I 

(1.)  Destruction  of  the  Cities  of  the  Plain.  Traditions.  Peculiar  Position  and 
Character  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Unsuccessful  Attempts  to  Explore  it.— (2.)  Pro- 
jected Expedition  of  Lieutenant  Lynch.  Departure  from  New  York. 
Smyrna. — (3.)  Firman  of  the  Sultan.  Beirut.  St.  Jean  d'Acre. — (4.)  Prep- 
arations for  the  Overland  March.  The  Escort.  Bedawin. — (5.)  Incidents 
by  the  Way.     Arabian  Villages.     (6.)  Arrival  at  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

(1.)  Centuries  have  been  multiplied  upon  centuries,  cycle 
after  cycle  has  been  numbered  on  the  dial-plate  of  time,  since 
the  setting  sun  smiled  for  the  last  time  on  the  fertile  valley 
of  Siddim,  and  threw  its  bright  effulgence  of  mingled  purple 
and  gold  far  and  wide  over  the  groves,  and  gardens,  and  vine- 
yards, blooming  with  freshness  and  beauty,  that  surrounded 
the  lovely  cities  of  the  plain.  Ere  the  morning's  dawn,  a  little 
group,  but  four  in  number — the  father,  well  stricken  in  years, 
and  the  wife  of  his  bosom,  with  two  young  daughters,  the  pledges, 
of  their  love — might  have  been  seen  hastening  for  their  lives  tow- 
ards the  gates  of  Zoar.  None  dared  to  look  behind  them,  for  the 
anger  of  the  Most  High  was  kindled — none  save  the  mother, 
who,  moved  either  by  the  curiosity  perhaps  unjustly  attributed 
to  her  sex,  or  the  yearning  of  her  heart  for  the  daughters  and 
sons-in-law  she  had  left  behind  her,  turned  to  cast  one  more 
look  on  the  fair  scene  which  had  been  marred  by  the  vices  of 
man,  and  was  now  doomed  of  God.  In  an  instant,  the  foun- 
tains of  life  were  sealed  up,  and  her  frame  hardened  into 


462      DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  CITIES  OP  THE  PLAIN.        [1842 

a  statue ;  she  no  longer  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  her  fleeing 
companions,  but,  transfixed  to  the  spot — a  pillar  of  salt — she 
stood  there,  where  her  feet  had  been  planted,  a  lasting  monu- 
ment of  the  indignation  of  her  Maker,  and  a  continual  warn- 
ing against  disobedience. 

And  now  the  fire  and  brimstone  descended  out  of  heaven, 
and  "  the  garden  of  the  Lord,"  the  cities  and  their  inhabitants, 
and  the  plain  and  everything  it  contained,  sank  beneath  the 
burning  and  hissing  waves,  that  surged  up  to  the  valley  of 
El-Ghor;  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Admah  and  Zeboim — the 
people  in  the  midst  of  their  crimes— the  substance  which  they  had 
hoarded — their  flocks  and  their  herds — the  fields  and  gardens 
teeming  with  the  products  of  the  earth,  the  fruits  and  the 
flowers,  the  noble  groves  of  palms  and  sycamores,  and  the  vine 
and  the  olive  with  their  load  of  blushing  honors, — all  disap- 
peared forever — -"and,  lo!  the  smoke  of  the  country  went  up 
as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace  !" 

For  thousands  of  years,  sacred  and  profane  history  have 
preserved  the  traditions  connected  with  this  event.  The 
chosen  people  of  God  were  driven  from  the  homes  of  their 
fathers  by  the  legions  of  Rome ;  the  latter  was  deprived  of 
her  conquests  by  the  Saracen ;  and  he,  in  his  turn,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Turk.  But  ever  since  Titus  planted  his  eagles 
in  triumph  on  the  crumbling  ramparts  of  Jerusalem,  and  from 
the  hour  in  which  the  edict  of  Adrian  made  the  Jew  an  out- 
cast and  a  wanderer,*  whithersoever  he  has  gone,  wherever 
he  has  sought  an  abiding-place — whether  amid  the  snows  and 
frosts  of  northern  Europe,  or  the  soft  and  voluptuous  climes 
along  the  classic  shores  of  the  Mediterranean — whether  in  the 
crowded  capitals  of  the  Old  World,  or  the  expanding  cities  of 
the  New — he  has  clung,  in  every  trial  and  vicissitude,  through 
every  peril  and  persecution,  to  the  memories  that  time  has 
hallowed,  and  which  his  religion  has  sanctified. 

During  all  this  period,  too,  Palestine  herself  has  not  been 
without  witnesses.     Though  the  Infidel  is  in  possession  of 

*  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Titus  in  the  70th  year  of  the  Christian  Era  ;  but 
the  Jews  were  not  banished  from  Judea  until  A.  D   136. 


1847.]  SCIENTIFIC    EXPLORATIONS.  463 

the  desert  plains,  and  the  still  fertile  valleys,  fanned  but  rarely 
by  the  soft  winds  that  blow 

"Sabean  odors.from  the  spicy  shore 
Of  Araby  the  Blest," m 

though  new  customs  and  new  institutions  have  taken  the 
place  of  the  old,  the  foot  of  the  Gentile  has  not  trampled  out 
the  evidences  that  testify  to  this  occurrence ;  and  the  scenes 
and  associations  endeared  to  the  Christian,  though  here  and 
there  partially  veiled  in  mystery,  yet  bask  beneath  the  same 
sunshine  that  lighted  the  nephew  of  Abraham  in  his  flight 
from  that  valley  of  wickedness  and  sin.  The  follower  of  Is- 
lam continues,  to  this  day,  to  hand  down  to  his  children  the 
legends  of  the  stranger  race  that  once  inhabited  the  soil  which 
he  now  treads  as  its  master ;  and  the  fierce  Bedawi,  as  he 
looks  down  from  the  o'ershadowing  heights  upon  the  dank  pool 
lying  inclosed  between  the  barren  hills  of  Judea  and  the  stony 
mountains  of  Arabia  Petrea,  utters  the  name  of  Buhr-Lut* 
From  the  earliest  period,  the  peculiar  position  and  char- 
acter of  the  Salt,  or  Dead  Sea,  have  attracted  the  notice  of 
men  of  learning  and  intelligence.  In  ancient  times,  Stephen 
of  Byzantium,  Strabo,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Pliny  and  Josephus, 
regarded  it  as  an  anomaly  in  the  physical  composition  of  the 
world,  while  Justin  and  Tertullian  pointed  to  it  as  affording 
the  most  conclusive  evidence  in  favor  of  the  great  truths  of 
Christianity.  In  later  days,  the  scholars  and  savans  of 
Europe  and  America  have  made  repeated  efforts  to  obtain 
the  most  careful  and  accurate  information  in  regard  to  this 
singular  body  of  water,  by  personal  examination  and  observa- 
tion ;  and,  in  connection  therewith,  to  ascertain  by  what  mys- 
terious agency,  or  in  what  mysterious  manner,  the  judgment  of 
God  was  carried  into  effect  in  the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the 
plain.  Some  of  them  have  been  partially  successful,  and  others 
have  become  disheartened  almost  at  the  commencement  of  their 
task.     Pococke,  Maundrell,  Shaw,  and  Burckhardt, — Abbe 

♦Sea  of  Lot. 


464  PROJECTED    EXPEDITION.  [1847. 

Martine,  Chateaubriand,  Lamartine,  and  the  Count  de  Bertou, 
among  Europeans, — and  Stephens  and  Robinson  of  our  own 
countrymen,  have  thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  subject.  But 
all  these  travellers  were,  in  one  respect  or  another,  deficient  in 
the  facilities  that  might  have  enabled  them  to  perfect  their 
investigations,  and  a  great  deal  was  still  left  undetermined  as 
the  fruitful  subject  of  conjecture.  An  accurate  survey  of  the 
lake,  and  a  critical  examination  into  the  configuration  of  its 
shores,  were  essential.  This  was  attempted  by  private  in- 
dividuals, but  the  results  were  neither  complete,  nor  reliable. 
Two  successive  efforts  were  also  made  by  British  officers,  but 
they  too  failed  ;  and  it  was  reserved  for  Lieutenant  "William 
F.  Lynch,  of  the  navy  of  the  United  States,  with  the  means 
placed  at  his  disposal  by  his  government,  to  achieve  a  far 
greater  measure  of  success,  in  many  particulars,  than  those 
who  had  preceded  him. 

(2.)  In  the  spring  of  1847,  the  idea  of  conducting  an  Ex- 
pedition to  the  Holy  Land,  to  circumnavigate  the  Lake  As- 
phaltites,  or  Dead  Sea,  and  explore  the  river  ordan,  suggested 
itself  to  Lieutenant  Lynch.  The  project  which  he  had  con- 
ceived was  immediately  laid  before  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
and  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  received  a  favor- 
able consideration.  Instructions  were  accordingly  issued  to 
him  on  the  last  day  of  July  to  commence  his  preparations  ; 
and  on  the  2d  of  October  following,  the  store-ship  Supply  was 
placed  under  his  orders,  to  convey  the  men  whom  he  had 
selected  to  accompany  him,  with  the  necessary  stores,  to  the 
Syrian  coast. 

Besides  furnishing  himself  and  the  members  of  his  party, 
with  a  liberal  supply  of  weapons,  including  a  large  blunder- 
buss, as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of  the  savage  Beda- 
win  of  the  desert,  the  commander  of  the  projected  Expedition 
received  permission  to  have  two  metallic  boats  constructed, 
one  of  copper  and  the  other  of  galvanized  iron,  together  with 
a  couple  of  trucks  and  sets  of  harness,  it  being  the  intention 
to  transport  them  overland  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  sea 


]         DEPARTURE  FROM  NEW  YORK.  465 

of  Galilee.*  To  these  were  added  suitable  tents  lor  camping, 
oooking  utensils,  gum-elastic  water  bags,  books  and  instru- 
ments. 

Every  requisite  preparation  having  been  made,  on  the  20th 
of  November,  the  Supply  dropped  down  from  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard,  where  she  had  been  fitted  for  the  Expedition,  to 
the  anchorage  off  the  Battery.  The  unfavorable  weather 
detained  her  here  for  several  days,  but  on  the  26th  instant  it 
changed  for  the  better,  and  she  stood  down  the  Narrows  and 
thence  out  to  sea,  with  her  sails  distended  by  the  prosperous 
breezes  that  wafted  her  rapidly  along  toward  the  storied 
Jand  whither  she  was  bound.  Making  brief  stoppings  at  Gib- 
raltar, Port  Mahon,  and  Malta,  on  the  16th  of  February, 
1848,  she  anchored  in  the  harbor  of  Smyrna,  the  Ismir  of 
the  Infidel,  lying  in  the  midst  of  an  amphitheatre  of  lofty 
hills,  towering  above  which  is  the  ancient  Mons  Pag-us,  on 
whose  slopes  are  spread  out  the  blooming  environs,  and  the 
perfumed  groves  of  citrons,  oranges,  and  lemons,  that  sur- 
round it;  on  the  north,  the  Mysian  Olympus  rearing  its 
hoary  summit  to  the  clouds,  on  the  south  the  peaks  of  Tmo- 
lus  clothed  with  their  dark  canopies  of  sombre  oaks  and  fune- 
real pines  and  melancholy  cypresses,  and  between  them  a 
varied  scene  of  floral  loveliness, — green  hills  fringed  with  the 
richest  vegetation,  intermingled  with  delightful  valleys,  where 
the  nectarine  and  almond,  the  fig  and  plantain,  the  acacia, 
the  palm,  the  olive,  the  mulberry  and  the  mimosa,  flourish 
and  blossom  in  an  atmosphere  which  the  keen  frosts  of  winter 
can  never  penetrate, — and  by  the  water's  side  the  long  lines 
of  flat  roofed  houses,  some  well  built  of  brick,  and  others 
shabbily  constructed  of  planks,  and  offering  a  strange  contrast 
to  the  many  colored  domes  and  lofty  minarets  that  surmount 
the  temples  of  the  Moslem,  while  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  in 
the  interior  the  landscape  is  dotted  with  pillared  kiosks  and 
handsome  villas  sweetly  embowered  amid  the  most  luxuriant 
foliage,  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers. 

*  The  boats  were  so  made,  also,  that  they  could  be  taken  to  pieces,  if  neces- 
sary, and  carried  on  the  backs  of  camels. 

20* 


466  SMYRNA.  [1848 

But  however  beautiful  and  impressive  may  be  the  view  of 
Smyrna  from  the  bay,  on  entering  the  city  and  examining 
it  closely,  the  pleasing  illusion  is  soon  dissipated.  "  The 
Frank  quarter  is  dirty,  ill-paved,  and  narrow  ;  in  addition  to 
which,  it  is  almost  rendered  impassable  by  long  strings  of 
camels  and  porters  carrying  huge  bales  of  cotton.  The  houses 
(excepting  those  of  the  consuls  and  principal  merchants,  which 
are  large  and  commodious,)  are  miserably  built ;  the  sides 
consist  often  of  planks,  and  when  of  bricks,  the  walls  are  too 
thin  to  keep  out  cold  and  damp.  Neither  windows  nor  doors 
are  made  to  shut  close  ;  and  if  locks  appear  on  the  latter,  it 
is  too  much  to  expect  that  they  should  be  serviceable.  There 
is  a  great  lack  of  accommodation  for  travellers.  The  only  inn 
in  the  town  contains  but  a  single  decent  room  ;  and  the  noise 
of  revelry  is  incessant.  Beside  this,  there  are  three  boarding 
houses,  but  furnished  lodgings  are  not  to  be  procured,  nor 
can  furniture  be  hired  for  a  few  weeks  or  months.  The  appa- 
ratus commonly  used  for  supplying  warmth  to  the  body  in 
cold  weather  is  a  brazier  placed  under  the  table,  which  is 
covered  by  a  large  cloth  held  by  each  member  of  the  family 
circle  up  to  the  chin,  to  prevent  the  heat  from  escaping. 
Grates  and  stoves  have  of  late  years  been  introduced,  but  they 
are  still  rare,  and  to  be  seen  only  in  Frank  dwellings.  The 
shops  are  little  dark  rooms,  but  tolerably  supplied  with 
European  articles.  The  bazars,  with  their  long  covered  rows 
of  stalls,  built  with  sundry  precautions  against  fire,  whose 
ravages  are  awfully  common,  are  secured  by  iron  gates  closed 
at  night."* 

Smyrna  was  one  of  the  cities  that  contested  for  the  honor 
of  being  the  birthplace  of  Homer,  and,  also,  the  seat  of  ono 
of  the  seven  apocalyptic  churches.  It  contains  not  far  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  inhabitants,  most  of  whom 
are  Turks,  and  the  remainder  Greeks,  Jews,  Armenians, 
Syrians,  and  Franks.  The  society  is  said  to  be  quite  agreeable, 
and  strangers  are  welcomed  with  a  cordiality  and  Hospitality 
not  usual  in  Turkish  towns.  The  Greeks  have  assimilated 
*  Elliott's  Travels,  Vol  II,  p.  39,  et  se<j. 


1848.]  COSTUME    AND    CLIMATE.  467 

to  the  manners  of  the  Franks  in  many  respects,  and  adopted 
in  great  part  the  costumes  of  western  Europe  ;  but  among 
the  other  classes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Franks  and  Jews, 
the  Turkish  dress  prevails.  A  clear  white  or  party-colored 
turban,  or  the  crimson  tarbush,  with  its  long  silken  tassel  of 
blue  or  black  hanging  down  nearly  to  the  shoulder  of  the 
wearer,  is  worn  by  the  males,  while  the  females  conceal  their 
dark  locks  and  sallow  faces — all  but  the  bright  flashing  eyes — 
beneath  the  folds  of  the  thin  muslin  yashmak.  When  the 
condition  of  the  weather  requires  it,  the  former  envelop  them- 
selves in  the  grego,  a  long  coat,  made  of  a  thick  brown  or 
maroon-colored  woolen  stuff,  with  a  hood,  and  trimmed  with 
scarlet  cord  and  facings — while  the  latter  hide  their  embon- 
point figures,  and  their  loose,  flowing  sacks,  and  embroidered 
shakshen,  beneath  their  worsted  ferajes  of  yellow  or  purple, 
with  their  wide  capes  drooping  down  to  the  ground.  The 
Frank  adheres  to  the  costume  of  his  fathers,  and  the  Jew  still 
hides  his  sharp,  cunning  features,  and  the  well-filled  gipsire 
in  his  girdle,  beneath  the  folds  of  his  dark  serge  or  cotton 
gabardine. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  climate  of  Smyrna  is 
very  pleasant,  and  tolerably  healthy,  but  in  the  midsummer 
months,  from  June  till  September,  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun  are 
concentrated  by  the  surrounding  hills,  and  pour  down  their 
burning  flood  upon  the  city  without  mitigation.  The  intense 
heat  is  ordinarily  modified  or  tempered  by  the  inbat,  or  sea- 
breeze,  but  when  this  fails,  the  atmosphere  is  almost  suffoca- 
ting. At  such  times  business  is  entirely  suspended,  and  the 
Franks  always  confine  themselves  to  the  pleasant  shades  of 
their  country  houses. 

(3.)  Leaving  his  vessel  at  Smyrna,  Lieutenant  Lynch  pro- 
ceeded to  Constantinople — the  Stambul  of  the  Turk — in 
accordance  with  his  instructions,  to  obtain  the  permission  of 
the  Sultan  to  pass  through  his  dominions  in  Syria,  to  the 
Dead  Sea.  This  was  cheerfully  granted,  and  the  requisite 
firman,  addressed  to  the  governors  of  Saida  and  Jerusalem, 


468  Beirut.  [1848. 

was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Lieutenant  Lynch,  who  immedi- 
ately returned  to  his  party. 

On  the  10th  of  March,  the  Supply  again  got  under  way, 
in  order  to  proceed  to  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  where  it  was  designed 
finally  to  disembark.  Shortly  after  leaving  the  Gulf  of 
Smyrna,  the  vessel  was  driven  by  a  fierce  levanter  to  take 
shelter  in  the  bay  of  Scio.  From  thence  she  attempted  to 
pass  through  the  Icarean  Sea,  but  another  gale  obliged  her  to 
bear  away  for  Scala  Nova,  the  ancient  Neapolis,  near  which 
are  the  ruins  of  Ephesus,  and  of  the  famed  temple  of  Diana, 
fired  by  the  ambitious  Erostratus.  Sail  was  once  more  made  on 
the  18th  instant,  and  after  a  pleasant  run  of  near  seven  hun- 
dred miles,  the  morning  sun  of  the  25th  was  discovered  fling- 
ing his  rosy  beams  over  the  noble  range  of  Jebel-Liban,  once 
adorned  with  those  gigantic  cedars  that  added  beauty  and 
strength  to  the  temple  of  Solomon;  but  now  "the  glory  of 
Lebanon  has  departed,"  and  the  clustering  firs  alone  conceal 
beneath  their  umbrella-like  canopies  the  deep  ravines  and 
beetling  precipices  beneath,  and  the  caves  and  sepulchres  in 
which  the  Jews  and  Christians  sheltered  themselves  in  former 
days  from  the  fury  of  the  persecutor,  while  far  above  them, 
in  the  clear  sunlight,  glistens  the  eternal  snow. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  25th,  the  Supply  anchored  off 
the  town  of  Beirut,  in  order  to  enable  Lieutenant  Lynch  to 
have  an  interview  with  the  Pasha,  and  obtain  the  requisite 
instructions  to  the  subordinates  of  the  latter  to  afford  him 
assistance  and  protection  on  his  route  through  the  coun- 
try, if  necessary,  and  to  dispatch  a  messenger  to  the  Pasha  of 
Damascus  for  a  similar  purpose. — Beirut  is  a  small  town, 
with  a  population  of  only  twelve  or  fifteen  thousand,  consist- 
ing principally  of  Turks,  Druses,  Armenians,  and  Franks 
In  the  days  of  antiquity  it  was  known  as  Berytus  (Byoviog), 
and  was  celebrated  for  its  law  school,  established  by  Alexan- 
der Severus.  In  the  legends  of  the  Crusaders  it  is  famous 
as  the  scene  of  St.  George's  victory  over  the  dragon.  It 
was  for  a  long  time  under  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  Em- 
perors, but  subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens. 


1848.]  DESCRIPTION.  469 

During  the  crusades  it  was  frequently  captured  by  the 
champions  of  the  Cross,  and  as  often  retaken  by  the  Infidel, 
In  the  17th  century  it  became  the  capital  of  the  renowned 
Druse  Emir,  Fakir-el-Din,  and  was  afterwards  attached  by 
the  Pasha  of  Acre  to  his  jurisdiction,  though  it  now  consti- 
tutes, with  the  adjacent  country,  a  separate  pashalic. 

Beirut  contains  no  public  buildings  of  importance,  and  its 
houses  and  bazars  are  much  like  those  of  Smyrna — Turkish 
towns  always  presenting  a  singular  uniformity  in  this  respect. 
It  is  the  seaport  for  the  exportation  of  the  cotton  and  silks 
of  the  Druses,  which  are  manufactured  here  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  silk  goods  of  Beirut,  and  especially  the 
sashes,  are  highly  esteemed.  The  surrounding  country  is 
fertile,  and  is  well  watered  by  the  river  of  Beirut  (Nahr- 
Beirut).  There  are  extensive  plantations  of  mulberry  trees 
in  the  vicinity,*  upon  the  leaves  of  which  the  silk- worms  are 
fed,  and  interspersed  among  them  are  gardens  and  groves, 
richly  garnished  with  flowers,  and  well  stocked  with  the 
orange  and  the  olive,  the  almond  and  the  tamarind.  The 
heat  of  the  atmosphere  is  often  intense,  yet  it  is  considerably 
modified  by  the  numerous  wells  in  the  town  and  suburbs; 
and  as  the  streets  are  kept  much  cleaner  than  is  common  in 
Eastern  towns,  it  is  usually  a  great  deal  more  healthy. 

The  costume  of  the  inhabitants  of  Beirut  differs  but  little 
from  that  noticed  in  Smyrna.  The  learned  Druse  (akout) 
does  not  lay  aside  his  white  turban,  nor  does  his  wife  ever 
part  with  her  ungainly  tantur,  but  the  Turkish  dress,  in 
some  or  all  of  its  features,  prevails  among  every  class  except 
the  Franks.  The  tanlur  is  a  singular,  not  to  say  hideous 
appendage,  peculiar  to  the  Druses  women,  though  occasionally 
seen  among  their  neighbors,  the  Maronites ;  it  is  worn  only 


*  The  mulberry  plants  are  here  set  in  rows  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  and  tney 
are  always  cut  off  at  a  corresponding  height,  none  but  the  fresh  twigs  being 
allowed  to  remain.  The  owners  of  the  plantations  allow  the  peasants  one  fourth 
of  the  silk  for  reeling  it,  gathering  the  leaves,  and  taking  care  of  the  worms. 
The  cocoons  are  kept  in  reed  inclosures,  called  sheds,  though  they  have  no 
roofs.  aj/f 


470  st.  :ean  d'acre.  [1848, 

by  those  who  are  married,  or  by  the  unmarried  of  the  highest 
rank,  and  when  once  assumed  is  never  laid  aside.  It  is  a 
tube,  made  of  tin,  or  plated  silver,  or  gilt,  according  to  the 
means  of  the  wearer,  about  eighteen  inches  long,  and  resem- 
bling a  horn.  At  the  base  it  is  from  three  to  four  inches  in 
diameter,  and  tapers  gradually  to  the  point  where  it  is  about 
an  inch  across.  It  is  fastened  to  the  head  by  means  of  a 
spring,  balanced  by  three  heavy  tassels  hanging  down  on  the 
opposite  side,  and  projects  either  from  the  centre  of  the  fore- 
head or  from  one  side,  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  like 
the  horn  of  a  unicorn.  From  the  tip,  depends  a  white 
transparent  veil,  that  floats  down  to  the  breast,  and  serves 
to  conceal  the  features  when  desired. 

In  the  afternoon  of  the  28th  of  March,  the  Supply  once 
more  got  under  sail,  and,  continuing  her  southerly  course, 
past  the  memorable  cities  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  anchored  before 
the  walled  village  of  Haifa,  under  Mount  Carmel.  This 
steep  promontory  forms  the  south-western  extremity  of  the 
bay  of  Acre,  and  is  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  hundred  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Far  to  the  east  stretches  the 
plain  of  Jezrael,  the  ancient  Megiddo,  so  often  dyed  with  the 
blood  of  the  warring  hosts  who  have  here  contended  for 
the  victory,  while  to  the  south  lies  the  lovely  valley  of 
Sharon,  inclosed  between  the  hills  of  Samaria  and  Galilee, 
and  adorned  with  the  beautiful  flowers  of  the  cistus  which 
have  so  often  elicited  the  admiration  of  the  traveller  and  the 
encomiums  of  the  poet.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  at 
a  distance  of  sixteen  miles,  is  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  the  Ptolemais 
of  the  Greek,  and  the  Akka  of  the  Saracen  ;*  before  whose 
walls  the  Lion-Hearted  Richard  and  his  gallant  knights  per- 
formed so  many  deeds  of  high  emprise,  and  in  later  years  the 


*  Upon  the  site  of  St.  Jean  d'Acre  stood  the  ancient  Hebrew,  or  Phoenician 
city,  called  Accho.  From  this  the  name  of  Akka  was  derived  by  the  Saracens, 
and  not  from  the  church  of  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  as  Lieutenant  Lynch  erroneously 
supposes  (Narrative,  p.  122.)  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  the  modern  name  of  the  town, 
was,  of  course,  derived  from  the  magnificent  cathedral  erected  by  the  knights  hos- 
pitallers of  St.  John. 


1848.]  LANDING    OF    THE    PARTY.  471 

"  Child  of  Destiny,"  the  future  Emperor  of  France,  was  so 
completely  foiled.  It  is  famous,  too,  as  the  scene  of  the  last 
desperate  but  useless  struggle  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 

St.  Jean  d'Acre  once  boasted  of  its  handsome  structures, 
uniting  the  grandeur  and  massiveness  of  ancient  Gothic 
architecture,  with  the  light  arabesque  work  of  the  Saracen. 
All  its  fine  public  and  private  buildings  were  battered  down 
and  nearly  destroyed,  during  the  siege  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  in 
1832,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  white  marble  mosque 
of  Djezzar  Pasha,  which  is  of  a  quadrangular  form,  and 
surmounted  with  a  beautiful  cupola  supported  on  pillars 
brought  from  the  ruins  of  Csesarea.  The  cube-shaped  houses 
are  mostly  built  of  stone,  with  flat  mud  roofs  which  form 
agreeable  promenades. 

(4.)  The  members  of  the  exploring  party,  consisting  of 
Lieutenant  Lynch,  Lieutenant  Dale,  Passed  Midshipman 
Aulick,  and  eleven  others,  petty  officers  and  seamen,  landed 
at  Haifa  with  their  baggage  and  equipment — not  forgetting 
the  two  boats — on  the  morning  of  the  31st  of  March,  and 
encamped  by  the  sea-shore.#  The  Supply  then  sailed  for 
Jaffa,  the  ancient  Joppa,  and  the  seaport  to  Jerusalem,  from 
whence  the  "  military  chest"  of  the  Expedition  was  for- 
warded to  the  British  Consul  at  the  ancient  capital  of 
Judea. 

Horses  having  been  procured  from  Acre,  the  party  com- 
menced moving  from  their  encampment  on  the  morning  of 
the  1st  of  April.  But  the  Arabian  steeds  seemed  to  be  con- 
scious that  the  day  was  a  privileged  one,  and  so  determined  to 
fool  their  new  friends  "  to  the  top  of  their  bent."  The  boats 
were  secured  upon  the  trucks,  and  the  horses  duly  har- 
nessed ;  but  when  the  word  was  given  to  start,  the  latter 
showed  off  all  their  fine  points  with  perfect  delight,  except 
that  of  go-ahead-ativeness.  They  kicked  and  pranced,  and 
foamed  and   reared,   but  not  an  inch   forward  would  they 

*  In  addition  to  the  above,  Henry  Bedlow,  Esq.,  and  Dr.  Henry  J.  Anderson, 
joined  the  party  as  volunteers,  and  rendered  efficient  service  in  conducting  the 
scientific  examinations  made  by  the  Expedition. 


472  THE    ESCORT.  [1848 

budge.  Coaxing  and  beating  were  alike  found  of  no  avail, 
and  the  boats  were  then  taken  off  and  sent  across  the  bay  by 
water.  The  difficulty  was  not  yet  removed,  however,  and 
the  brutes  still  protested  against  the  unaccustomed  load. 
Backed  by  a  Bedawi  on  the  desert  they  could  outstrip  the 
wind,  but  they  were  wholly  unused  to  draught,  and  had  no 
mind  to  change  positions  with  the  patient  ox,  and  the  stub- 
born, yet  generally  good  natured  mule.  Still,  after  a  long 
and  tiresome  struggle,  by  dint  of  supplication  and  entreaty, 
intermingled  with  kicks  and  cuffs  without  number,  they 
were  finally  forced  along  within  a  couple  of  miles  of  St. 
Jean  d'Acre. 

"While  the  necessary  preparations  for  the  overland  march  were 
being  completed,  the  party  encamped  on  the  river  Namaane, 
or  Belus.  After  a  protacted  and  fruitless  parley  with  Sa'id 
Bey,  the  governor  of  Acre,  a  private  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  Sherif  Hazza  of  Mecca,  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Prophet,  and  'Akil  Aga  el  Hassee,  a  powerful  border  sheikh, 
who  agreed  to  accompany  the  expedition,  and  to  bring  with 
them  ten  spears,  for  a  reasonable  compensation.  The  Sherif 
was  a  fine  old  Arab  nobleman,  small  in  stature,  but  lithe  and 
active  in  his  movements,  possessing  intelligent  features  and  a 
dark  Egyptian  complexion.  "Akil  was  a  sort  of  Murat  of  the 
desert,  a  model  of  personal  beauty,  and  a  noble  specimen  of 
the  Arabian  Bedawin.  His  complexion  was  a  soft  olive, 
whose  feminine  appearance  was  relieved  by  the  dark  flashing 
eye  and  swelling  nostril  indicative  of  the  warrior's  soul  that 
beat  within  his  bosom.  In  form  he  was  another  Antinous, 
presenting  a  muscular  development  in  which  elegance  and 
strength  were  beautifully  and  harmoniously  combined.  Attired 
in  a  scarlet  cloth  pelisse,  with  its  rich  embroidery  of  gold — the 
dark  masses  of  his  glossy  black  hair  half  concealed  beneath 
his  crimson  tarbush — and  the  long  ataghan  in  his  girdle 
ready  to  be  clutched  at  a  moment's  warning — he  seemed 
equally  well  fitted  to  enter  the  lists  of  Venus  or  of  Mars. 

In  describing  the  Bedawin  whom  he  saw  during  his 
tour  through  the   Holy  Land,   the  Rev.  Mr.  Fisk  remarks, 


1848.]  BEDAWI    ARAB.  473 

that  "  they  are  for  the  most  part,  straight,  upright,  and  grace- 
fully formed.  I  have  never  met,"  says  he,  M  with  a  lame  or 
deformed  Bedawi.  They  are  generally  of  a  spare  habit,  mus- 
cular and  sinewy.  Their  skins  are  of  a  fine,  rich  brown,  very 
like  the  color  of  the  carefully  roasted  coffee-berry.  Frequently 
their  skin  has  almost  a  transparent  appearance,  and  is  capable 
of  exhibiting  emotion,  in  the  rushing  of  the  blood  to  the  cheeks. 
Their  eyes  are  well  set  in  their  heads,  and  are  sparkling,  burn- 
ing, quick,  and  intelligent.  They  have  mostly  thin  spare 
beards  which  they  wear  untrimmed.  They  possess  immense 
energy  and  activity,  and  are  capable  of  enduring  fatigue ;  all 
of  which  their  most  abstemious  habits  tend  to  cherish.  Their 
step,  when  in  the  desert,  is  firm,  agile,  and  graceful.  They 
walk  as  nature  intended.  They  have  never  been  drilled  into 
awkwardness  by  dancing  and  posture  masters.  Every  muscle, 
tendon  and  sinew,  performs  its  proper  office.  If  asked  to 
mention,  the  best  specimen  of  untutored,  manly  gracefulness 
of  bearing,  I  have  ever  met  with,  I  would  try  and  depict  a 
young,  healthy  Bedawi  Arab.  And  their  simple  attire  is  as 
graceful  as  their  persons,  though  consisting  of  but  slender 
and  uncostly  materials.  Next  to  the  skin  they  wear  a  tunic 
or  shirt  of  unbleached,  coarse  linen,  open  at  the  throat  and 
chest,  and  extending  a  little  below  the  knees,  the  legs  being 
left  bare.  The  sleeves  are  wide  and  flowing,  and  admit  of 
being  thrown  up  to  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  leave  the  arm  unin- 
cumbered, when  needed  for  the  use  of  the  sabre.  This  gar- 
ment is  gathered  round  the  loins  by  a  broad,  stiff  leather 
girdle,  in  which  is  fixed  the  long,  crooked  knife,  with  a  blade 
of  about  eighteen  inches  long — a  fearful  weapon  in  a  dextrous 
hand.  From  the  girdle  is  suspended,  also,  the  flint  and  steel 
for  firing  their  matchlock  guns  ;  and  also  a  pouch  for  tobaccco, 
commonly  made  of  lizard  skin.  Slung  from  the  neck,  they 
wear  a  belt  containing  several  rounds  of  ammunition  ;  while 
by  the  side  is  usually  suspended  a  strong  iron-hilted  sabre, 
and  behind  the  shoulders  a  long  matchlock  gun,  sometimes 
ornamented  with  bits  of  mother-of-pearl.  On  the  head  they 
wear  the  tarbush,  or  skull  cap,  made  of  crimson  felt,  with  a 


474  CHARACTER   AND   DISPOSITION.  [1848. 

blue  tassel  at  the  crown,  round  which  is  bound  a  shawl  or 
turban.  Some,  instead  of  the  latter,  wear  the  keffieh,  which 
is  a  handkerchief,  often  of  rich  colors,  placed  diagonally  open 
over  the  head.  The  foremost  corner  is  thrown  back,  and  the 
whole  is  left  to  fall  in  graceful  folds  over  the  shoulder,  and 
bound  round  the  temples  by  a  fillet  of  camel's  hair  twisted 
into  a  rope.  This  latter  head-dress  is  far  more  common 
among  the  Arabs  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Jordan,  than 
among  those  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  Desert.  The 
attire  of  all  Bedawin,  except  the  very  poorest,  is  completed 
by  an  outside  flowing  mantle,  of  a  very  graceful  shape — some- 
times blue,  now  and  then  crimson — but  more  commonly  of  a 
fawn  color,  marked  with  broad  stripes  of  dark  brown.  The 
former  are  generally  of  woolen  cloth ;  the  latter  of  camel's 
hair.  They  commonly  go  barefoot ;  but  those  who  can  afford 
such  a  luxury,  have  sandals  of  fish  skin,  which  are  made  at 
Tor,  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  They,  however,  use  them 
only  occasionally,  when  the  sands  are  intensely  hot,  or  the 
mountain  passes  sharp  and  rugged.  With  such  a  costume — 
so  picturesque  and  graceful,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should 
produce,  at  first,  a  startling  effect  upon  a  European  mind, 
when  seen  in  connection  with  their  wild-bird-d'-th * -wilderness 
bearing.  Their  garments  appear  as  if  they  had  never  been 
new — they  are  so  frayed  and  worn  ;  and  often  are  little  better 
than  rags — yet  not  the  less  graceful  for  that ;  and  theii 
weapons,  doubtless,  have  passed  from  father  to  son,  for  several 
generations."* 

The  remarks  of  Mr.  Fisk  are  more  particularly  applicable 
to  those  tribes  inhabiting  the  peninsula  of  Sinai;  the  male 
members  of  which  usually  compose  the  escorts  of  caravans, 
or  of  parties  of  travellers,  proceeding  to  Jerusalem,  by  way 
of  Mount  Sinai,  Akabah,  Wady  Mousa,  and  Hebron.  But 
all  these  different  families  of  the  descendants  of  Ishmael  re 
semble  one  another  in  their  more  important  and  most  striking 
characteristics ;  and  each  individual  is  a  type  of  his  class. 
Bold,  fierce,  and  courageous ;  proud  and  intractable ;  possess- 

•  Fisk's  Memorial  of  the  Holy  Land. 


1848.]  OVERLAND   MARCH.  475 

ing  powers  of  physical  endurance  rarely  equalled ;  prompt  in 
danger ;  terrible  in  battle, — yet  kind  and  affectionate  in  his 
intercourse  with  his  family ;  ever  ready  to  face  any  peril  in 
defence  of  his  creed,  to  accomplish  revenge,  or  gratify  his 
propensity  for  plunder  ;  never-tiring  and  relentless  in  the 
pursuit  of  an  enemy,  but  adhering  to  a  friend  with  the  devo- 
tion of  a  brother  :  murdering  and  robbing  with  impunity  those 
not  under  his  protection,  but,  where  his  word  and  faith  have 
been  plighted,  faithful  and  reliable  to  the  last — such,  in  brief, 
is  the  character  of  the  Bedawi  warrior,  who  roams  at  will 
through  the  desert  wilderness  of  Judea,  and  along  the  sandy 
terraces  overlooking  the  valley  of  El-Ghor. 

(5.)  It  having  been  satisfactorily  proved  that  the  horses 
of  Araby,  however  useful  in  their  appropriate  sphere,  were 
wholly  unfitted  for  hauling  the  boats  over  the  mountain 
ridges  between  Acre  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  though  the 
distance  barely  exceeded  thirty  miles,  Lieutenant  Lynch  had 
recourse  to  the  never-failing  "ship  of  the  desert"* — the  jemel 
of  the  Arab.  A  pair  of  camels  were  harnessed  to  each  truck, 
and  one  attached  in  front  as  a  leader ;  a  number  of  the  same 
animals  were  also  provided  to  relieve  the  former,  and  to  carry 
the  baggage  of  the  party,  while  each  one  of  the  officers  and 
men  was  mounted  on  a  fine  Arabian  destrier. 

On  the  morning  of  the  4th  of  April,  they  commenced  the 
overland  march.  Crossing  the  beautiful  plain  of  Acre,  em- 
purpled with  the  glorious  dyes  of  the  anemone,  and  sprinkled 
all  over  with  the  beautiful  blossoms  of  the  daisy,  the  white 
and  crimson  and  golden  flowers  of  the  aster,  the  pale  asphodel, 
the  scarlet  pink,  the  variegated  convolvulus,  and  the  bright- 
tinted  cyclamen, — they  soon  commenced  the  ascent  of  the  hills 

*  According  to  Sir  William  Jones,  the  ancient  Arabian  poets  were  fond  of 
comparing  their  favorite  animal  to  a  ship ;  and  among  the  extracts  which  he 
gives,  illustrative  of  this  fact,  are  the  following: — 

"  Long  is  her  neck  [the  camel's] ;  and  when  she  raises  it  with  celerity,  it  re- 
sembles the  stern  of  a  ship,  floating  aloft  on  the  billowy  Tigris." 

"  Ah !  the  vehicles  which  bore  away  my  fair  one,  on  the  morning  when  the 
tribe  of  Malee  departed,  and  their  camels  were  travelling  the  banks  of  Deda, 
xesembled  large  ships." 


476  APPEARANCE    OP    THE    CAVALCADE.  [1848. 

beyond,  which  were  richly  carpeted  along  their  slopes  with 
the  purest  green  verdure,  and  dotted  with  clumps  of  figs  and 
apricots,  and  groves  of  olives  and  pomegranates,  amid  whose 
branches  many  a  feathered  songster  discoursed  "  most  eloquent 
music,"  and  whose  emerald  foliage  seemed  so  refreshing  to 
the  eye,  in  contrast  with  the  glassy  appearance  of  the  ocean, 
and  the  hot  sandy  beach. 

A  short  distance  beyond  Acre,  in  a  south-easterly  direction, 
was  the  village  of  Abelin,*  the  mountain  fortress  of  the 
Sheikh  'Akil,  perched  on  its  eyry-cliff  high  above  the  southern 
slope  of  the  plain.  Here  the  cavalcade  was  joined  by  the 
Arabian  Escort.  Including  the  Sherif  and  'Akil,  with  their 
servants,  there  were,  in  all,  fifteen  Bedawin ;  this  addition 
making  the  total  number  of  the  whole  party,  counting  the 
interpreter  and  cook  hired  for  the  occasion  by  Lieutenant 
Lynch,  to  be  thirty-one.  'Akil  was  dressed  in  a  long  flow- 
ing aba,  or  cloak,  of  a  green  color,  a  red  tarbush,  and  white 
trowsers  of  ample  dimensions ;  while  the  Sherif  wore  a  rich 
cloak  embroidered  with  silver,  and  underneath  a  spencer  and 
trowsers  of  the  finest  olive-colored  cloth.  Their  followers 
and  attendants  were  enveloped  in  dark  purple  abas,  and  their 
swart  faces  half  hidden  beneath  their  yellow  koofeeyahs,  or 
keffiehs,  which  were  bound  round  with  cords  of  camel's  hair, 
dyed  black.  All  were  armed  with  spears  eighteen  feet  long, 
some  of  which  were  tufted  with  beautiful  ostrich  feathers. 

"When  in  motion,  the  united  party  presented  an  imposing 
and  picturesque  appearance.  The  Americans  on  their  fine- 
spirited  horses — the  long  line  of  camels — the  carriages  and 
boats,  each  of  which  bore  its  tiny  flag  of  mingled  stripes  and 
stars — the  Arabs  on  their  caracoling  steeds,  leading  the  head 
of  the  column,  or  darting  over  the  distant  hills,  in  front,  in 

*  Lieutenant  Lynch  hazards  the  conjecture,  (Narrative,  p.  140,  note,)  that 
Abelin  may  be  the  Abilene,  or  Abila,  mentioned  by  St.  Luke,  (chap.  iii.  1st  verse.) 
As  the  former  had  previously  exhibited  (p.  43)  his  limited  knowledge  of  history, 
in  making  Old  Noll  the  successor  of  the  Merry  Monarch,  Charles  II,  it  is  no 
strange  that  he  should  be  equally  mistaken  in  regard  to  Biblical  topography. 
The  true  Abila,  to  which  the  apostle  refers,  was  located  to  the  north-west  of 
Damascus. 


1848.]  ARABIAN   VILLAGES.  477 

flank,  or  in  rear,  as  videttes — and  the  glistening  carbines  and 
flashing  spears — all  combined  to  produce  a  most  attractive 
sight,  which  excited  the  curiosity,  and  called  forth  the  won- 
dering gaze,  of  the  few  fellahin  that  were  seen  along  the  line 
of  the  route.  Occasionally,  an  Arab  village  would  be  passed, 
and  many  a  dark  eye  would  then  scan  the  equipments  of  the 
cavalcade,  and  watch  its  movements  as  it  wound  its  way 
through  the  valleys  and  plains,  through  the  rocky  defiles,  and 
over  the  hilly  slopes. 

Usually,  the  villages  of  the  Arabian  peasantry  {fellahin), 
as  well  as  of  the  more  aristocratic  class  to  which  'Akil  and 
his  followers  belonged,  who  think  it  beneath  their  dignity  to 
cultivate  the  soil,  and  spend  most  of  their  time  upon  horse- 
back, and  live  mainly  by  plunder  and  extortion,  are  pictur- 
esquely situated,  near  the  summit  of  some  lofty  hill,  in  a 
position  not  easily  accessible  to  an  enemy.  Most  of  the 
houses  are  but  one  story  in  height.  They  are  of  a  cubical 
shape,  and  built  of  uncemented  stones,  with  flat  mud  roofs, 
sometimes  surrounded  with  balustrades,  two  or  three  feet 
high,  made  of  twigs  wattled  closely  together.  Inside  they 
are  most  commonly  quite  mean  and  filthy.  The  floors  are 
of  mud,  and  the  rafters  begrimed  with  smoke  and  dirt.  A 
pot  of  coffee  is  almost  always  simmering  amidst  the  embers 
in  the  centre  of  the  floor,  but  its  delicious  aroma  is  entirely 
lost  in  the  fumes  of  tobacco  proceeding  from  the  chibouque 
or  narghile,  or  the  odor  of  the  burning  camel's  dung,  which 
constitutes  the  only  fuel  used  by  the  Arab,  that  impregnates 
everything,  and  taints  the  atmosphere  for  miles  around. 
Each  house  has  a  dome-roofed  oven  near  it,  made  of  mud,  in 
which  the  family  bake  their  bread.  Hovels  for  sheltering  the 
favorite  horse  or  horses  of  the  Arab  are  seen  once  in  a  while, 
but  they  are  extremely  rare,  and  the  same  roof  not  unfre- 
quently  covers  both  the  steed  and  his  master. 

(6.)  After  leaving  Abelin,  the  Expedition  crossed  a  ridge 
bounding  the  plain  sloping  down  to  the  Syrian  coast,  and 
soon  after  entered  the  Wady  en  Nafakh,  usually  called  the 


478  APPEARANCE    OF    THE    COUNTRY.  [1818. 

Blowing  Valley,*  which  is  flanked  by  high  hills  covered  with 
an  abundance  of  wild  flowers  and  grass,  and  with  white  oak 
trees  of  a  stunted  growth.  In  the  midst  of  this  valley,  and 
in  the  land  of  Zebulon,  the  party  halted  for  the  night.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  the  5th  instant,  the  tents  were  struck  and 
the  march  resumed.  Passing  between  Nazareth  and  Cana 
of  Galilee — the  residence  in  early  life,  and  the  scene  of  the 
first  miracle  of  our  Saviour — they  encamped,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  afternoon,  near  Turan,  a  fortified  Arab  village, 
imbosomed  amid  thrifty  groves  and  orchards  of  olives.  Dur- 
ing the  day,  a  number  of  sharp  and  abrupt  ridges  had  been 
passed  by  the  cavalcade.  The  road  was  a  mere  mule-track, 
and  it  was  often  necessary  to  deviate  from  it.  Where  the 
hills  were  so  steep  that  the  descent  was  difficult,  the  camels 
were  detached  from  the  trucks,  and  the  latter  let  down  with 
ropes. 

On  the  6th  of  April  they  passed  through  a  rich  undulating 
country,  dotted  with  uninclosed  fields  of  horse-beans,  wheat, 
barley,  and  millet,  and  with  patches  of  melons,  pumpkins, 
and  cucumbers,  alternating,  now  and  then,  with  grassy 
slopes,  with  dense  clumps  of  the  purple  merar,  and  with 
bright  parterres  sprinkled  with  the  blue  convolvulus  and  the 
scarlet  anemone,  and  with  beautiful  groves,  where  the  white 
blossoms  of  the  olive,  and  the  crimson  flowers  of  the_  pome- 
granate, peeped  out  from  amid  the  light  green  foliage  of  the 
fig  and  the  apricot,  that  shaded  and  relieved,  but  could  not 
conceal,  their  gorgeous  dyes.  About  the  middle  of  the  after- 
noon, the  summit  of  the  dividing  ridge  was  reached,  and 
glimpses  were  obtained  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Bashan  piled  up  to  the  clouds  on  its  further  shore. 
The  prevailing  formation,  hitherto,  had  been  limestone,  but 
nodules  of  quartz  were  now  frequently  seep,  and  an  abund- 
ance of  trap  entirely  destitute  of  minerals.  F«*r  to  the  right 
trended  a  long  range  of  crateriform  slopes,  all  indicating  the 
volcanic  character  of  the  country  that  lay  beyond. 

*  The  literal  meaning  of  Wady  en  Na/akh,  is  "  Tht  Valtey,  or  R#vf*u,  of  tht 
Winds." 


1848.]  ARRIVAL    AT    TIBERIAS.  479 

Shortly  after  commencing  the  descent,  and  after  threading 
with  great  difficulty  a  number  of  precipitous  valleys,  the 
vanguard  of  the  party  emerged  upon  the  high  road  leading 
from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  near  the  ancient  town  of 
Magdalen.  The  silvery  surface  of  the  lake  was  now  dis- 
tinctly visible,  and  a  few  hours'  ride  brought  them  to  the 
ancient  city  of  Tiberias — the  Tibaria  of  the  Jew,  and  the 
Tubariyeh  of  his  Moslem  oppressor  and  taskmaster.* 

*  Tiberias  was  originally  built  by  Herod,  and  named  in  honor  of  Tiberius 
Caesar- 


CHAPTER   II. 

(1.)  The  Sea  of  Galilee.  Tiberias.— (2.)  Condition  of  the  Jews.  Eastern  Wo- 
men.— (3.)  The  Jordan. — (4.)  Descent  of  the  River.  Passing  the  Rapids. — 
(5.)  Character  of  the  Adjacent  Country.  Inhabitants. —  (6.)  Pilgrim's  Ford. 
Anniversary  of  the  Saviour's  Baptism. — (7.)  Embouchure  into  the  Dead 
Sea. 

(1.)  How  great  changes  have  taken  place,  what  various  inci- 
dents have  transpired,  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Genesareth,* 
since  the  galleys  of  the  Jew  and  the  Roman  contended  upon 
its  placid  waters  for  the  mastery !  The  flourishing  cities 
that  once  adorned  its  borders  lie  crumbling  in  ruins,  or  have 
disappeared  forever.  Tiberias  still  remains — the  wreck  of  its 
former  greatness :  but  the  doom  pronounced  against  Caper- 
naum the  proud,  against  Chorazin  and  Bethsaida,  has  been 
fulfilled.!  The  original  possessor  of  the  soil  has  been  driven 
forth  by  the  Gentile,  or  lingers  amid  the  scenes  around 
which  cluster  so  many  bright  and  dear  recollections  of  by- 
gone days,  to  be  the  victim  of  oppression,  or  the  object  of  the 
scoffing  gibes  and  contemptuous  sneers  of  the  stranger  who 
has  deprived  him  of  his  inheritance.  The  snowy  peaks  of 
"  breezy  Hermon"  yet  bound  the  vision  on  the  north  :  on  the 
east,  the  barren  hills  and  precipitous  ravines  of  Anti-Libanus 
wear  the  same  dreary  and  desert  aspect  as  in  days  of  yore ; 
and  on  the  west,  the  cultivated  slopes  are  still  adorned  with  . 
waving  corn,  with  fragrant  groves,  and  "  radiant  fields  of 
asphodel."  But  all  beside  is  changed.  The  towns  and  cities 
are  no  longer  the  same,  and  a  new  people  have  established 
themselves  in  the  land.     The  victorious  banners  of  Tancred 

*  The  Sea  of  Galilee  is  also.called  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  and  the  Lake  of  Ge- 
nesareth,  (Gennezareth,  Genesar,  Chinnereth,  or  Cinneroth.) 
f  Matthew  xi,  20-24. 


1848.]  SEA    OP    GALILEE.  481 

and  Saladin  have  been  alike  mirrored  in  the  clear  waters, — 
the  Christian  and  the  Infidel  have  rejoiced  in  alternate  tri- 
umph,— the  Frank  and  the  Turk  have  each,  in  turn,  suc- 
cumbed to  the  other, — but  after  ages  of  war  and  bloodshed, 
the  Mussulman  is  left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  sacred 
places  of  Israel. 

The  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  Lake  of  Genesareth,  is,  strictly 
speaking,  an  expansion  of  the  river  Jordan,  occupying  a  basin 
formed  amid  the  surrounding  hills.  It  is  about  sixteen  miles 
in  length,  from  north  to  south,  and  between  five  and  six  miles 
in  breadth.  On  the  east  it  is  bordered  by  precipitous  moun- 
tains, for  the  most  part  rising  abruptly  from  the  water's  edge ; 
but  on  the  west,  the  banks  slope  gradually  upwards  to  the 
plain  of  Zebulon.  As  the  shore  outline  is  almost  unbro- 
ken, and  the  margin  nearly  destitute  of  trees,  while  a  boat, 
or  sailing  craft  of  any  kind,  is  scarcely  ever  seen,  the  aspect 
of  the  lake  is  cheerless  and  monotonous,  except  when  dis- 
turbed by  the  occasional  squalls  issuing  from  the  ravines,  sim- 
ilar to  that  which  was  hushed  in  an  instant  by  the  simple 
command  of  the  Saviour,  "  Peace,  be  still !" — yet  its  broad 
and  unruffled  surface,  "added  to  the  impression  under  which 
every  Christian  pilgrim  approaches  it,  gives  to  it  a  character 
of  unparalleled  dignity."* 

During  the  rainy  season,  the  depth  of  the  water  in  the 
lake  is  considerably  greater  than  at  other  times,  but  after  a 
rise,  the  rapid  evaporation  which  takes  place  in  this  warm  cli- 
mate soon  causes  it  to  fall.  The  greatest  depth  so  far  ascer- 
tained is  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet.  To  the  taste  the 
water  is  cool  and  sweet,  and  it  is  said  to  possess  medicinal 
properties.  About  a  mile  to  the  south  of  Tiberias  are  the 
hot  baths  or  springs  of  Emmaus,  the  waters  of  which  are 
salt  and  bitter,  and  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  Near  them  are  several  other  springs,  whose  waters 
contain  more  or  less  mineral  substances.  Several  varieties 
of  the  most  delicious  fish  are  found  in  the  lake,  which  furnish 
the  weary  traveller  with  many  an  excellent  repast. 

*  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  Vol.  IV,  p   216. 

21 


482  GEOLOGY.  [1848. 

In  regard  to  the  geology  of  the  surrounding  country,  the 
general  formation  of  the  Libanus  ranges  rs  said  to  be  car- 
boniferous and  mountain-limestone,  and  the  higher  parts  seem 
to  consist  of  graiiwacke,  slate,  and  other  transition  rocks. 
At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  and  on  its  eastern 
shore,  basalt,  and  igneous  rocks  of  different  kinds,  are  abun- 
dant. The  limestone  is  very  porous,  and  easily  affected  by 
air  or  water.  It  abounds  in  fossil  remains,  and  is  rapidly  worn 
into  hollows  and  caves,  which  have  been  formed  into  sepul- 
chres, and  in  ancient  days  were  the  hiding  places  of  the  Jews 
and  Christians.  The  soil  of  the  slopes  and  terraces,  and  the 
valleys  and  ravines,  consists  mainly  of  the  decomposed  debris 
and  detritus  washed  down  from  the  mountains.  It  is  usually 
quite  productive ;  and  were  proper  encouragement  given  to 
the  husbandman,  or  the  requisite  attention  bestowed  on  the 
cultivation  of  the  ground,  abundant  crops  would  be  obtained. 
But  agriculture  is  now  in  a  languishing  state,  and  the  imple- 
ments of  husbandry  are  of  the  rudest  description.  Acts  of 
oppression,  of  lawlessness  and  violence,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  the  poor  fellah  who  plants  his  field  of  corn  or 
dhoura  {millet,)  or  a  patch  of  wild  peas,  (kcrsenna,)  for  his 
camels,  esteems  himself  quite  fortunate  if  his  crops  are  not 
reaped  by  the  rapacious  Turk,  or  the  wandering  Bedawi. 

In  itself,  the  Sea  of  Galilee  is  by  no  means  a  striking  feat- 
ure in  the  scenery  of  Palestine ;  but  there  is  scarce  a  moun- 
tain or  a  rock,  a  town  or  a  ruin,  a  tree  or  a  shrub  along  its 
shores,  but  is  vocal  with  its  scripture  legend.  Upon  its  west- 
ern borders,  in  the  city  of  Capernaum,  dwelt  Jesus  himself. 
On  its  verdant  banks,  fringed  with  the  scarlet  anemone,  the 
yellow  marigold,  and  the  pink  oleander,  he  called  his  disciples, 
and  made  them  "  fishers  of  men."  Here  is  the  Mount  of 
Beatitudes,  upon  whose  summit  he  delivered  that  noble  sermon 
which  contains  the  whole  duty  of  man.  Here  he  performed 
the  miracle  of  the  loaves  and  fishes ;  here  he  healed  the  sick 
and  cleansed  those  who  were  diseased ;  and  here  he  preached 
the  gospel  of  mercy  and  love.  In  yonder  field,  now  covered 
with  the  growing  corn,  the  famishing  disciples  fed  themselves 


1848.]  TIBERIAS.  483 

upon  the  Sabbath  day  ;  and  on  that  tufted  hillock,  where  the 
hedda*  makes  its  nest,  stood  their  Master,  after  his  glorious 
triumph  over  death  and  the  grave,  when  he  bade  them  cast 
their  net  on  the  right  side  of  the  ship,  and  they  should  find.t 

With  the  exception  of  Tiberias,  there  are  no  towns  of  partic- 
ular importance  on  the  banks  of  the  lake,  except  as  connected 
with  the  localities  of  Scripture.  A  short  distance  north  of 
the  former  is  the  miserable  village  of  Mejdel,  the  ancient 
Magdala,  and  the  birth-place  of  Mary  Magdalene ;  but  ail 
the  other  places  of  interest  are  in  ruins,  and  in  some  cases  it 
is  difficult  even  to  ascertain  their  sites  with  any  degree  of 
precision.  Tiberias  is  a  walled  town,  and  contains  from  fif- 
teen hundred  to  two  thousand  inhabitants ;  one  thousand  of 
whom  are  Jews,  and  the  remainder  are  Mussulmans.  It 
contains  two  synagogues,  and  a  dilapidated  fortification  usu- 
ally tenanted  by  a  few  Turkish  soldiers.  The  private  houses 
are  built  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  villages  in  the 
interior,  though  they  often  have  several  rooms,  and  occa- 
sionally stone  floors.  The  streets  are  crooked  and  narrow ; 
and,  as  the  owners  of  the  fields  lying  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity all  reside  within  the  walls,  they  are  often  obstructed  with 
loaded  camels,  mules,  and  donkeys.  Great  numbers  of 
swallows  have  their  nests  amid  the  ruins,  and  sometimes  they 
are  allowed  to  build  their  habitations  inside  of  the  occupied 
houses.  Cleanliness  is  not  one  of  the  cardinal  virtues  of  the 
inhabitants ;  vermin  are  pretty  abundant ;  and  Tiberias  might 
be  appropriately  called,  "  the  Paradise  of  Fleas." 

(2.)  Throughout  Palestine,  the  condition  of  the  Jews,  as  a 
general  rule,  is  miserable  in  the  extreme.  In  Tiberias,  how- 
ever, it  is  somewhat  mollified;  and* though  they  are  often 
made  to  feel  the  heaviness  of  the  Turkish  yoke,  they  are  less 
exposed  to  indignities  than  in  many  of  the  other  cities  and 
towns  in  Palestine.  This  is  one  of  the  holy  cities  of  the 
Jews,  and  is  held  in  peculiar  veneration  by  them.  Accord- 
ing to  their  traditions,  Jacob  resided  here,  and  the  advent  of 
the  expected  Messiah  is  to  take  place  on  the  shores  of  the 

*  The  heron,  or  king-fisher.  f  John  xxi,  6 


484  THE   JEWS.  [J84& 

neighboring  lake.  Tiberias  was  an  ancient  seat  of  Jewish  lit- 
erature, and  it  now  contains  a  sanhedrim  consisting  of  sev- 
enty rabbis,  who  are  constantly  occupied  in  the  study  of  the 
Talmud.  They  are  supported  principally  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  European  Jews,  and  to  them  are  referred  controver- 
sial matters  of  discipline  by  their  brethren  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

It  has  often  been  remarked,  that  the  snake-eyed  and  sharp- 
featured  Israelite  of  the  present  day  is  very  different,  in  per- 
sonal appearance,  from  the  tall  and  manly  warriors  who  com- 
posed the  armies  of  David,  or  the  comely  youth  that  graced 
the  court  of  Solomon ;  and  the  male  Jews,  clad  in  their  dark 
and  unshapely  gabardines,  who  may  be  seen  in  the  syna- 
gogues of  Tiberias,  with  their  broad  and  narrow  phylacteries, 
either  plain  or  embroidered,  chanting  in  a  monotonous,  but 
earnest  tone,  the  lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  do  not  constitute 
an  exception  to  this  remark.  But  the  Jewish  women,  here 
as  everywhere,  are 

"  Like  a  ladye  from  a  far  countree, 
Beautiful  exceedingly." 

Whether  it  be  that  the  hardships  and  sufferings,  the  trials 
and  perils,  encountered  by  their  race,  have  wrought  less 
harshly  upon  their  feelings,  and  that  their  fortitude  and  buoy- 
ancy of  soul  have  proved  sufficient  to  sustain  them  in  every 
difficulty  and  adversity, — or  that,  as  many  among  them  still 
believe,  they  have  escaped  the  curse  pronounced  upon  those 
who  reviled  and  scourged  and  crucified  the  Redeemer,* — it  is 
undeniable,  that  in  personal  attractions,  in  gracefulness  of 
form,  in  ease  of  movement,  in  beauty  and  symmetry  of  feat- 
ure, and,  withal,  in  kindliness  and  gentleness  of  spirit,  they 

*  It  is  said  that  there  was  not  a  single  Jewess  seen  among  the  crowd  that 
scofled  at  and  maltreated  the  Son  of  God.  A  woman  of  Bethany  poured  upon 
his  head  the  precious  ointment,  and  wiped  his  golden  locks  with  her  hair.  The 
daughters  of  Jerusalem  wept  over  what  they  deemed  his  misfortunes.  Holy 
women  accompanied  him  to  Calvary,  and  brought  thither  balm  and  spices :  they 
■ought  him,  too,  at  the  sepulchre,  and  to  Mary  Magdalene  was  vouchsafed  the 
privilege  of  first  gazing  upon  those  well-remembered  features  after  he  had  risen 
from  the  dead. 


x848.]  EASTERN    WOMEN.  485 

far  exceed  their  male  companions.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Eastern  towns,  at  the  wells  and  springs,  groups  of  Jewish 
damsels,  or  peasant  women,  may  be  seen,  each  one  of  whom, 
in  the  style  of  her  dress,  in  her  complexion,  manner,  and  ap- 
pearance, will  remind  the  Christian  traveller  of  the  Rebecca 
whom  Isaac  loved.  And  it  has  been  remarked  by  an  intelli- 
gent female  writer,  who  speaks  from  her  own  personal  obser- 
vation, that  the  common  practice  of  carrying  water  on  their 
heads  contributes  a  great  deal  to  the  uprightness  and  ele- 
gance of  figure  for  which  the  women  of  Syria  and  Egypt  are 
remarkable.  "  So  far  from  giving  a  curve  to  the  spine,  de- 
pressing the  neck,  or  in  anywise  shortening  the  growth  of 
the  body,  the  resistance  of  the  muscles  seems  to  increase  in 
proportion  to  the  pressure,  and  much  elasticity  of  action  is 
the  result.  In  some  places,  the  springs  are  often  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  from  the  villages,  and  much  below  them,  so  as  to  ren- 
der the  ascent  very  toilsome  :  yet  every  day  in  the  week  may 
be  seen  girls  and  women  carrying  these  jars,  containing  not 
less  than  fifteen  quarts  of  water,  on  their  heads,  with  a 
natural  grace  not  exceeded  by  the  studied  walk  of  a  stage 
dancer.  A  favorite  manner  with  them,  when  seen  by  men 
and  when  wishing  to  be  coquettish,  is  to  place  both  thumbs 
through  the  jar  handles,  which  has  a  very  statue-like  appear- 
ance. When  unobserved,  they  generally  tuck  up  their  gowns 
all  round,  showing  their  pantaloons.  If  in  their  best  clothes, 
they  are  seen  with  silver  bracelets  instead  of  glass  ones, 
and  with  similar  rings  round  their  ankles ;  with  a  silver  relic 
case  hanging  at  their  bosom ;  with  long  sleeves  to  their 
gowns ;  and  over  it,  if  in  winter,  a  cloth  vest,  if  in  summer, 
one  of  bombazine ;  with  ear-rings ;  and  with  a  species  of 
ornament  not  known  in  England  or  France,  silver  rims  of 
mail  or  of  coins  which  take  in  the  oval  of  the  face  from  the 
temples  to  the  chin,  and  have  a  very  pretty  effect.  The  gir- 
dles are  fastened  by  two  silver  bosses  as  large  as  the  bottom 
of  a  tumbler,  and  they  wear  on  their  feet  a  pair  of  yellow 
slippers."  * 

*  Travels  of  Lady  Hester  Stanhope. 


486  THE   RIVER   JORDAN.  [1848. 

Very  little  change  has  been  made  for  centuries  in  the  dress 
of  the  Jewish  women.  The  fabrics  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, are  in  some  cases  different,  but  the  form  and  fashion 
are  nearly  the  same.  They  wear  short,  narrow-skirted 
gowns,  boddices,  and  wide  pantalets  gathered  at  the  ankles. 
The  boddice  is  left  open  in  front,  and  underneath  there  is  a 
thin  gauze  chemisette  or  stomacher,  with  pockets  for  the 
breasts — the  shape  of  which  is  thus  distinctly  shown,  and 
oftentimes  the  exhibition  is  so  gross  that  it  detracts  very 
much  from  the  appearance  in  other  respects.  The  unmarried 
females  wear  their  hair  in  tasteful  plaits  intermingled  with 
ornaments,  or  suffer  it  to  fall  in  long  clustering  ringlets  over 
the  neck  and  shoulders.  But  the  married  women  are  forbid- 
den to  expose  their  hair,  though  they  make  ample  amends  for 
regarding  the  prohibition,  by  ornamenting  their  heads  with 
silver  rims,  and  coins  and  gems,  and  with  a  great  abundance 
of  false  curls. 

(3.)  '  The  sacred  Jordan'  rises  a  few  miles  north  of  Banias, 
the  ancient  Caesarea  Philippi,  near  the  modern  town  of  Has- 
beiya,  in  latitude  33°  26'  N.,  and  longitude  32°.  35'  E.  It 
starts  abruptly  from  beneath  an  escarped  rock,  forty  feet  high, 
on  the  western  slope  of  Jebel-es-Sheikh,  or  Mount  Hermon.* 
At  its  source,  a  small  pool  or  fountain  is  formed,  which  is  half 
hidden  beneath  the  willow  and  plane-trees  that  twine  their 
branches  together  above  it,  and  beautifully  fringed  with  wild 
roses  and  clematis,  with  white  and  pink  oleanders,  with  the 
retem  and  the  dianthus,  with  altheas  and  snap-dragons. 

From  its  source  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Libanus,  the  Jordan 
pursues  a  circuitous  and  impetuous  course  of  more  than  forty 
miles,  through  the  beautiful  valley  of  Bakaah,  and  the  Ardh- 
el-Huleh  (Land  of  Huleh), — receiving,  meanwhile,  the  wa- 
ters of  the  River  of  Banias  and  its  tributaries,  and  crossing 
the  ferny  lake  of  Huleh,  the  Merom  of  antiquity, — and,  at 
length,  opens  out  into  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  or  Galilee,  close 

*  The  name  '  Jordan'  has  been  given  to  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  main 
river,  which  is  the  outlet  of  a  small  pool,  called  Phiala ;  and  the  principal 
■tream,  which  rises  as  stated  in  the  text,  is  called  the  Hasbeiyn 


1848.]  VALLEY    OF    EL-GHOR.  487 

beside  the  ancient  Bethsaida,  whose  reputed  site  on  its  eastern 
bank  is  still  pointed  out  to  the  pilgrim.  Throughout  this 
whole  distance,  the  valley  of  the  river  is  enamelled  with  the 
brightest  and  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  Mulberry  orchards 
and  olive  groves  cover  the  bottom  lands,  and  the  shelving 
slopes  are  adorned  with  fields  of  barley,  wheat,  and  millet ; 
with  patches  of  vines  and  melons ;  and  with  beds  of  wild 
flowers,  filling  the  air  with  their  fragrance,  and  shaming  with 
their  richly  varied  hues  the  brilliant  dyes  of  an  Eastern  sun- 
set. 

On  its  leaving  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  Jordan  debouches 
shortly  to  the  right,  and  then  turning  to  the  south,  enters  the 
narrow  valley  of  El-Ghor.  Henceforward  it  is  even  more 
sinuous  than  before ;  and,  thougjj  it  traverses  only  sixty 
miles  of  latitude  in  its  progress  to  the  Dead  Sea,  it  actually 
makes  full  two  hundred  miles,  according  to  the  calculation  of 
Lieutenant  Lynch.*  The  Ghor  is  about  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  average  width.  On  the  east  it  is  bordered  by  the 
barren  mountains  of  Hauran,  and  on  the  west  by  a  series  of 
laminated  hills  worn  by  the  rains  into  tent-like  shapes,  or 
truncated  cones.  The  river  has  two  banks, — one  just  above 
the  channel  which  it  has  cut  through  the  loose  soil,  and  the 
other,  something  like  five  hundred  feet  above,  running  like  a 
terrace  along  the  rolling  sand  hills  that  form  the  surface  of 
the  upper  plain. 

The  size  of  the  stream,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  current, 
vary  with  the  season.  In  February  and  March  the  floods 
occur,  and  its  lower  banks  are  then  often  overflowed  by  the 
melted  snows  of  the  Libanus  ranges.  In  high  water,  it  is 
from  ten  to  seventeen  feet  deep,  and  the  breadth  varies  from 
twenty-five  to  seventy  yards.  At  one  time  it  meanders 
slowly  through  a  rich  alluvial  plain,  and  at  another  dashes 

*  Narrative,  p.  2G5. — A  proneness  to  exaggeration  is  characteristic  of  the 
statements  of  Lieutenant  Lynch ;  and  as  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  very 
critical  in  the  measurement  of  altitudes  or  distances,  this  estimate  may  be  erro- 
neous. Heretofore,  the  entire  length  of  the  Jordan  has  always  been  set  down 
at  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

4 


4Pd  SCRIPTURAL    ASSOCIATIONS.  [1848. 

swiftly  between  bold  and  precipitous  banks  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  feet  high.  Here  it  is  a  placid  streamlet,  softly  laving 
the  white  fringy  clusters  of  the  asphodel,  and  the  long  plumy 
tresses  of  the  willow  and  the  oleander ;  and  there,  a  moun- 
tain torrent,  bounding  and  foaming  and  tossing  over  its  rocky 
bed. 

Numerous  rapids  and  cascades  obstruct  the  navigation  of 
the  river,  and  at  its  embouchure  into  the  Dead  Sea,  where  it 
is  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  yards  across,  it  is  thirteen 
hundred  feet  lower  than  its  fountain  head,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hermon.  In  the  course  of  its  descent  from  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias to  the  Lake  Asphaltites,  it  receives  several  tributaries. 
Those  coming  in  on  the  west  are  mere  torrents  :  the  principal 
affluents  on  the  east,  ar#  the  Sheriat-el-Mandhur,  (the  an- 
cient Jarmok,  or  Yermak,)  and  the  Jabok,  which  flows  down 
through  the  Wady  Zurka.  Below  the  mouth  of  this  tribu- 
tary, which  is  not  far  from  twenty  miles  above  the  Dead  Sea, 
the  evidences  of  a  volcanic  formation  multiply  rapidly,  and 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  depression  of  the  whole  bed  of  the 
river,  south  of  this  point,  produced,  as  appearances  would 
indicate,  by  some  sudden  convulsion  of  nature.  The  water 
of  the  river  is  for  the  most  part  sweet ;  but  now  and  then 
it  is  somewhat  brackish,  occasioned,  doubtless,  by  the  salt 
streams  that  mingle  their  contents  writh  it.  Owing  to  the 
abundance  of  hot  springs  along  the  borders  of  the  stream,  and 
the  heat  of  the  climate,  its  temperature  is  quite  warm.  It 
is  usually  of  a  white  sulphurous  color,  and,  except  as  has  been 
mentioned,  is  free  from  any  taste  or  smell.  According  to 
the  analysis  of  Dr.  Marcet,  it  contains  but  about  one  three- 
hundredth  part  of  the  proportion  of  solid  matter  found  in  the 
water  of  the  Dead  Sea.* 

To  the  biblical  scholar,  the  Jordan  is  replete  with  interest- 
ing associations.  When  Lot  separated  himself  from  Abram, 
he  "  chose  him  all  the  plain  of  Jordan."!  Its  waters  were 
divided  when  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  carried  into  the 
stream,  and  the  children  of  Israel,  under  Joshua  their  leader 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  1807.  f  Genesis  xiii,  11. 


1848.]  DESCENT    OP    THE    RIVER.  489 

"  passed  over  right  against  Jericho."*  Elijah  performed  a 
similar  miracle  just  before  he  ascended  to  heaven  in  the  cha- 
riot of  fire,  and,  in  company  with  Elisha,  "went  over  on  dry 
ground  ;"  so,  too,  the  latter,  after  the  departure  of  his  friend, 
with  the  mantle  that  fell  from  him,  smote  the  waters,  and 
"  they  parted  hither  and  thither."t  In  later  times,  it  has 
been  celebrated  as  the  sacred  stream  in  which  Jesus  Christ 
received  the  rite  of  baptism  from  John  the  Baptist ;  and  in 
commemoration  of  this  event,  at  the  Easter  season,  thousands 
of  devotees,  usually  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City,  from  every 
nation  and  clime  in  Christendom,  repair  to  El  Meshra'a, 
where  it  is  said  to  have  taken  place,  to  bathe  in  the  river 
on  the  anniversary,  and  "  cleanse  them  from  all  unrighteous- 
ness.":}: 

(4.)  After  encountering  and  overcoming  almost  insuperable 
difficulties,  the  metallic  boats  transported  by  the  American 
Exploring  party  overland  from  Acre,  were  finally  launched 
upon  the  waters  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  on  the  8th  of  April. 
A  third  boat — said  to  be  the  only  one  on  the  lake — was  pur- 
chased at  Tiberias — in  order  to  carry  some  of  the  lighter 
baggage,  and  the  tents,  after  the  arrival  of  the  party  at  the 
Dead  Sea.  As  the  waters  of  the  river  were  now  subsiding, 
on  the  receipt  of  the  firman,  or  buyuruldi,  of  the  Pasha  of 
Jerusalem,  addressed  to  "  the  Sheikhs  and  elders  of  the  Arabs 
and  keepers  of  the  highways,"  requiring  them  to  give  assist- 
ance and  protection,  if  necessary,  to  Lieutenant  Lynch  and 
his  command,  immediate  preparations  were  made  for  tho 
descent  of  the  river.  On  the  10th  instant,  they  left  Tibe- 
rias,— Lieutenant  Dale,  with  the  Arabian  Escort,  and  the 
scientific  gentlemen  who  accompanied  the  Expedition  as 
amateurs,  following  the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  and  taking 
with  him  the  loaded  camels, — and  Lieutenant  Lynch  accom- 
panying the  boats. 

*  Joshua,  iii,  16.  f  II.  Kings,  ii,  8,  14. 

\  It  has  been  quite  fashionable  to  baptize  the  scions  of  royalty  in  water 
brought  from  the  Jordan.  That  used  on  the  occasion  of  the  baptism  of  young 
Napoleon,  was  obtained  by  Chateaubriand.  Some,  or  all,  of  Queen  Victoria'* 
children,  have  been  similarly  honored. 

21* 


490  THE    RAPIDS.  [1848. 

So  tortuous  was  the  course  of  the  river,  that  at  the  close  of 
the  second  day  after  leaving  Tiberias,  they  were  only  twelve 
miles  distant  in  a  straight  line  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The 
boat  purchased  there  was  soon  dashed  to  pieces  amid  the 
rocks  and  precipices  over  which  tumbled  the  foaming  waters; 
but  the  metallic  ones  suffered  but  little  from  the  severe 
thumps  which  they  received.  No  obstacle  impeded  the  de- 
scent of  the  stream  except  the  numerous  rapids  and  cascades, 
many  of  which  were  from  eleven  to  fifteen  feet  fall.  In 
passing  these,  it  was  sometimes  found  necessary  to  attach 
ropes  to  the  boats  to  lower  them  slowly  down ;  at  others, 
they  made  the  leap  boldly,  trusting  to  fortune  and  the  skilful 
hand  that  guided  the  helm ;  and  at  others  still,  while  one  or 
two  remained  in  each  boat,  the  rest  sprang  overboard,  and 
clinging  to  its  sides  to  steady  it  in  the  descent,  floated  along 
with  it  over  the  dangerous  rapid  or  the  plunging  cascade. 

A  member  of  the  party,  in  giving  an  account  of  the  pas- 
sage of  one  of  these  rapids,  says  : — "  Presently  we  came  near 
to  the  ruins  of  a  bridge,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  which 
was  a  streaming  rapid  and  a  steep  and  dangerous  fall ;  over 
this  we  had  to  pass  somehow  or  other :  there  was  no  circum- 
navigating it :  the  fall  was  there,  and  we  must  dash  over  it 
at  all  hazard.  We  thought  it  right,  however,  first  of  all,  tc* 
unload  the  boats  on  the  banks,  and  then,  '  neck  or  nothing,' 
firmly  brave  the  danger :  the  word  '  Ready  !'  was  given — 
every  precaution  was  taken — and  with  a  thrilling  interest 
the  undaunted  '  Yankee  boys'  guided  the  copper  boat,  for  she 
took  the  lead,  into  the  stream :  and  away  they  went,  dashing 
ahead,  all  hands  ready  to  jump  overboard  if  she  should  strike 
the  rocks  and  come  '  broadside  on'  to  the  edge  of  the  fall,  and 
so  slew  round  and  capsize.  But  despite  all  their  forethought 
and  skill,  '  she  struck,'  and  slewed  round  with  all  hands  in 
her,  and  dash  she  went  into  the  midst  of  the  fall.  At  this 
dangerous  moment  the  little  gig  [the  boat  purchased  at  Tibe- 
rias] came  over  the  rapid,  jumping  like  a  parched  pea,  and 
dashing  at  us,  struck  our  boat  '  amidships,'  threatening  to 
break  us  in  two.     We  fortunately  received  no  injury,  but  the 


1848.]  VEGETATION.  491 

poor  little  gig  was  broken  to  pieces.  Then  the  iron  boat 
dashed  into  the  midst  of  the  stream,  and  leaped  the  dangerous 
fall  without  sustaining  any  damage."* 

(5.)  For  several  miles  below  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  elevated 
plains  lying  along  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  are  well  cultivated, 
and  fields  of  grain  are  quite  abundant ;  but  as  you  progress 
to  the  southward,  this  appearance  of  fertility  gives  place  to  a 
barren,  and  a  wilder  and  more  savage  aspect.  The  terraces 
are  now  strongly  marked,  and  continuous  ranges  of  perpen- 
dicular cliffs,  of  a  chalky  color  at  the  top,  and  a  light  brown 
at  the  base,  border  El-Ghor  on  either  hand.  Limestone  is 
the  prevalent  formation,  but  huge  blocks  of  trap  and  con- 
glomerate, boulders  of  sandstone  and  quartz,  fossil  rocks,  and 
perpendicular  layers  and  columnar  masses  of  basalt,  are 
likewise  found.  The  soil  of  the  lower  valley  is  a  dark  rich 
loam,  or  alluvion,  occasionally  interrupted  by  indurated  clay 
and  sand,  which  supports,  for  the  most  part,  an  exceedingly 
rank  vegetation. 

But  although  the  upper  plains  along  the  southern  part  of 
the  valley  of  the  river  are  so  deficient  in  vegetable  life,  a 
bright  line  of  the  richest  verdure  marks  the  course  of  the  river 
throughout  the  whole  distance.  So  luxuriant  is  this,  that  the 
stream  itself  is  oftentimes  completely  hidden,  and  screened, 
by  the  dense  thickets  of  trees  and  bushes,  "  the  pride  of  Jor- 
dan," from  the  fierce  sun  that  beats  down  in  all  its  fury,  as 
if  in  fulfilment  of  a  curse,  upon  the  barren  hills  and  desert 
slopes  of  Palestine.  Upon  the  borders  of  the  stream,  amid 
the  mingled  tufts  of  cane  and  reeds  and  grass,  innumerable 
wild  flowers  bloom  and  blossom.  The  scarlet  anemone,  the 
yellow  marigold  and  daisy,  the  pink-flowered  valerian,  the 
crimson  baghuk,  the  bright  waterlily,  the  orange-colored  bis- 
bas  and  murur,  the  white  fringy  asphodel,  the  purple  clover, 
the  medicinal  briony,  the  pheasant's  eye,  and  the  scabiosa 
stellata,  blend  their  choice  dyes  together.  Tangled  masses 
of  shrubbery,  of  vines  and  osiers,  shade  or  conceal  the  wild 
oats  and  mustard,  the  fennel  and  mallows,  that  grow  beneath 

*  Montague's  Narrative  of  the  Expedition,  pp.  15o;  157. 


492  WANDERING   TRIBES.  [1848. 

them.  White  and  pink  oleanders  display  their  clustering 
flowers  in  every  bight,  and  scent  the  air  with  their  grateful 
perfume.  The  beautiful  acacia,  and  the  stately  plane-tree, 
are  occasionally  seen.  The  tamarisk  (turf a),  and  the  willow 
(sifsaf)  abound  through  the  whole  length  of  the  valley  The 
swamp-like  shores — often  real  jungles  in  appearance — here 
and  there  present  a  lovely  myrtle  bower,  and  far  inland  may 
be  descried  miniature  forests  of  dwarf  oaks  and  cedars. 
Kelakh  and  ghurrah  bushes  are  scattered  along  the  terraces, 
with  the  laurestinus,  the  arbutus,  and  the  agnus  castus. 
The  carob  tree,  the  mala  insana,  and  the  pistachio,  or  tere- 
binth (the  biUm  of  the  Arab)  are  seen,  though  but  rarely ; 
and  every  turn  of  the  river  discloses  the  purple  blossoms  of 
the  osher  tree,  and  the  thorny  branches  of  the  nubk,  or  lotus.* 

Few  of  the  animals  driven  out  from  the  thickets,  in  the 
olden  time,  by  the  swelling  of  the  river.t  are  now  found  in 
the  country.  The  principal  ones  at  present  known  to  exist, 
are  the  gazelle,  the  fallow  deer,  the  jackal,  the  panther,  and 
the  Icelb-el-maya,  or  water-dog.  Wild  fowl  are  tolerably 
plentiful.  The  beautiful  bulbul — its  crimson  wings  and 
scarlet  head  contrasting  finely  with  the  rich  nutty  brown  of 
its  breast — trills  its  soft  notes  in  the  fragrant  groves  at  even- 
tide ;  and  the  sweet  banks  and  woods  echo  till  early  dawn  the 
melodious  songs  of  a  thousand  nightingales.1: 

Wandering  tribes  of  Bedawin  occupy  both  shores  of  the 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.  At  Kerak,  near  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  latter,  there  are  a  number  of  Christian  Arabs  who 
have  a  chapel  of  their  own ;  but,  generally  speaking,  all  the 
Arabs  are  Mussulmans.  Some  of  them  are  bold,  fieice  and 
warlike,  and  others  timid,  meagre,  forlorn,  and  wretched 
looking    objects.     All    are  treacherous   and   thievish.     Ten 

*  This  tree  is  al=o  called  by  the  Arabs  the  sidr.  It  is  the  spina  christi,  from 
whose  branches,  as  it  is  supposed,  the  crown  of  thorns  worn  by  the  Redeemer, 
was  plaited. 

■f  Jeremiah,  xlix,  19. 

"  And  Jordan,  those  sweet  banks  of  thine, 
And  woods,  so  full  of  nightingales." 

Lalla  Rookh. 


1843.^  pilgrim's  ford.  493 

■ 

miles  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  Jerusalem  to  Nabulus,  they 
rob  and  plunder  without  fear  or  favor,  except  when  intimi- 
dated by  a  display  of  superior  strength,  or  when  their  good 
offices  and  their  countenance  and  protection  are  secured 
beforehand  by  hiring  them  as  an  escort.  The  fellahin,  or 
peasantry,  are  miserable  creatures.  When  it  is  stated  that 
the  poor  fellah  is  the  slave  of  the  Bedawi  or  Turk,  and  that 
the  fellaha,  his  wife,  is  also  his  drudge,  nothing  more  need 
be  added  in  regard  to  their  condition.  They  live  in  filthy 
mud  hovels,  and  subsist  mainly  on  pilau,  or  boiled  rice,  which 
they  eat  by  scooping  it  up  and  conveying  it  to  their  mouths 
in  the  hollow  of  their  hands. 

It  is  much  the  safest  for  travellers  to  pass  down  or  ascend 
the  Jordan,  along  its  eastern  bank,  as  the  Arabs  on  the  op- 
posite shore  are  famed  for  their  treacherous  and  cruel  dispo- 
sitions, and  a  score  of  other  bad  qualities ;  but  on  either 
route,  a  liberal  distribution  of  presents  or  money  can  alone 
insure  safety.  The  good  will  of  the  Sheikhs  of  the  different 
tribes  it  is  also  important  to  secure,  unless  the  escort  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  set  at  defiance  the  perils  of  the  road. 

{6.)  In  their  descent  of  the  river,  the  American  boats 
passed  safely  over  twenty-seven  important  rapids  and  cas- 
cades, besides  a  number  of  smaller  ones.  The  voyage  was 
not  wanting,  of  course,  in  excitement ;  and  whenever  there 
was  a  lack  of  incident,  the  ruins  of  some  old  Roman  bridge, 
or  some  locality  celebrated  in  Scripture  history,  or  an  Arab 
village  of  mud  houses,  or  goat's  hair  tents,  filled  with  un- 
kempt and  unwashed  children  and  slatternly  Bedawiyeh, 
would  be  discovered,  and  suggest  a  hundred  topics  for  discus- 
sion ot  reflection.  Late  in  the  evening  of  the  17th  of  April, 
they  arrived  at  El-Meshra'a,  the  Pilgrim's  Ford,  but  a  few 
miles  distant  from  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  morrow  was  the  anniversary  of  the  baptism  of  the 
Saviour.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  morning,  says  Lieutenant 
Lynch,  "  we  were  aroused  by  the  intelligence  that  the  pil- 
grims were  coming.  Rising  in  haste,  we  beheld  thousands 
of  torchlights,  with  a  dark  mass  beneath,  moving  rapidly 


494       ANNIVERSARY    OF    THE    SAVIOUR'S    BAPTISM.       [1848. 

over  the  hills.  Striking  our  tents  with  precipitation,  we 
hurriedly  removed  them  and  all  our  effects  a  short  distance 
to  the  left.  We  had  scarce  finished,  when  they  were  upon 
us : — men,  women,  and  children,  mounted  on  camels,  horses, 
mules,  and  donkeys,  rushed  impetuously  by  towards  the 
bank.  They  presented  the  appearance  of  fugitives  from  a 
routed  army.  Our  Arab  friends  here  stood  us  in  good  stead ; 
— sticking  their  tufted  spears  before  our  tents,  they  mounted 
their  steeds  and  formed  a  military  cordon  round  us.  But  for 
them  we  should  have  been  run  down,  and  most  of  our  effects 
trampled  upon,  scattered  and  lost.  Strange  that  we  should 
have  been  shielded  from  a  Christian  throng  by  wild  children 
of  the  desert, — Muslims  in  name,  but  pagans  in  reality. 
Nothing  but  the  spears  and  swarthy  faces  of  the  Arabs  saved 
us.  I  had,  in  the  meantime,  sent  the  boats  to  the  opposite 
shore,  a  little  below  the  bathing  place,  as  well  to  be  out  of 
the  way  as  to  be  in  readiness  to  render  assistance,  should 
any  of  the  crowd  be  swept  down  by  the  current,  and  in 
danger  of  drowning.  While  the  boats  were  taking  their 
position,  one  of  the  earlier  bathers  cried  out  that  it  was  a 
sacred  place ;  but  when  the  purpose  was  explained  to  him, 
he  warmly  thanked  us.  Moored  to  the  opposite  shore,  with 
their  crews  in  them,  they  presented  an  unusual  spectacle. 

"  The  party  which  had  disturbed  us  was  the  advanced 
guard  of  the  great  body  of  the  pilgrims.  At  5,  just  at  the 
dawn  of  day,  the  last  made  its  appearance,  coming  over  the 
crest  of  a  high  ridge,  in  one  tumultuous  and  eager  throng. 
In  all  the  wild  haste  of  a  disorderly  rout,  Copts  and  Russians, 
Poles,  Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Syrians,  from  all  parts  of 
Asia,  from  Europe,  from  Africa,  and  from  far  distant  Amer- 
ica, on  they  came ;  men,  women  and  children,  of  every  age 
and  hue,  and  in  every  variety  of  costume ;  talking,  scream- 
ing, shouting,  in  almost  every  known  language  under  the 
sun.  Mounted  as  variously  as  those  who  had  preceded  them, 
many  of  the  women  atid  children  were  suspended  in  baskets 
or  confined  in  cages  ;  and  with  their  eyes  strained  towards 
the  river,  heedless  of  all  intervening  obstacles,  they  hurried 


1848.]  SMBOUCHURE    INTO   THE    DEAD    SEA.  495 

eagerly  forward,  and  dismounting  in  haste,  and  disrobing  with 
precipitation,  rushed  down  the  bank  and  threw  themselves 
into  the  stream. 

"  They  seemed  to  be  absorbed  by  one  impulsive  feeling, 
and  perfectly  regardless  of  the  observations  of  others.  Each 
one  plunged  himself,  or  was  dipped  by  another,  three  times, 
below  the  surface,  in  honor  of  the  Trinity ;  and  then  filled 
a  bottle,  or  some  other  utensil,  from  the  river.  The  bathing- 
dress  of  many  of  the  pilgrims  was  a  white  gown  with  a 
black  cross  upon  it.  Most  of  them,  as  soon  as  they  were 
dressed,  cut  branches  of  the  agnus  castus,  or  willow ;  and, 
dipping  them  in  the  consecrated  stream,  bore  them  away  as 
memorials  of  their  visit.  In  an  hour  they  began  to  disappear ; 
and  in  less  than  three  hours  the  trodden  surface  of  the  lately 
crowded  bank  reflected  no  human  shadow.  The  pageant 
disappeared  as  rapidly  as  it  had  approached,  and  left  to  us 
once  more  the  silence  and  the  solitude  of  the  wilderness.  It 
was  like  a  dream.  An  immense  crowd  of  human  beings, 
said  to  be  8000,  but  I  thought  not  so  many,  had  passed  and 
repassed  before  our  tents,  and  left  not  a  vestige  behind 
them."* 

(7.)  In  their  progress  down  the  river,  the  Americans  had 
occasionally  been  threatened  with  an  attack  from  the  roving 
Arabs,  but  thus  far  they  had  not  been  molested ;  and  they 
continued  on  their  way,  after  the  departure  of  the  pilgrims, 
without  meeting  any  interruption.  The  gloomy  mountains 
bordering  upon  the  Salt  Lake,  had  been  visible  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  previous  day  ;  and  towards  the  close  of  the  18th 
of  April,  they  reached  the  embouchure  of  the  river,  whose 
banks  were  here  bordered  with  sedge  and  drift-wood,  and 
presented  a  fit  introduction  to  the  dreary  waste  of  waters 
that  lay  spread  out  in  the  dark  chasm  beyond.  Proceeding 
directly  to  the  western  shore,  the  boats  joined  the  land  party 
at  Ain-el-Feshka  (the  fountain  of  the  Stride),  and  shortly 
after  nightfall  encamped  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fountain,  and 
within  hearing  of  the  convent  bell  of  Mar  Saba. 

*  Narrative  of  Lieut.  Lynch,  p.  ^60,  et  seq. 


CHAPTER   III. 

(1.)  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  the  Dead  Sea.  Surveys  and  Exploiations. — (2.)  Di- 
mensions. Depth.  Analysis  of  the  Water. — (3.)  Physical  Geography. — 
(4.)  Animal  and  Vegetable  Life. — (5.)  Probable  Position  of  the  Cities  of  the 
Plain.     Manner  of  their  Destruction. — (6.)  Return  of  the  Exploring  Party. 

(1.)  Various  names  have  been  given  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Among 
the  Jews,  in  earlier  times,  it  was  called  the  Salt  Sea,*  in 
allusion  to  the  saline  properties  of  its  waters ;  and  the  Sea 
of  the  Plain,i  probably  with  reference  to  the  unfortunate 
catastrophe  that  occurred  on  the  plain  which  it  now  occu- 
pies. At  a  later  day,  the  prophets  designated  it  as  the 
East  Sea,t  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Mediterranean, 
or  West  Sea.  Josephus,  and  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
generally,  call  it  Lacus  Asphaltites,  or  the  Asphaltic  Lake, 
from  the  quantities  of  asphaltum,  in  a  soft  or  liquid  state, 
that  float  on  its  surface,  and  the  inflammable  bituminous 
stones  found  upon  its  shores.  Its  modern  appellation  of  the 
"Dead  Sea"  (Mare  Mortuum),  is  derived  from  the  once 
popular  superstition,  that  the  atmosphere  above  and  around 
it,  like  the  fabled  exhalations  of  the  Upas  tree,  was  tainted 
with  poison,  and  that  to  drink  of  its  water  was  certain 
death.  $      In  Syria  it  is  known  as  Al-Motanah,  or  Buhr  Lut, 

*  Genesis,  xiv,  3  ;  Deuteronomy,  iii,  17  ;   Joshua,  xv,  5. 

f    Deuteronomy,  iii,  17 ;  iv,  19.  |  Ezekiel.  xlvii,  18  ;  Joel,  ii,  20. 

^  "Reland,  in  his  account  of  the  Lacus  Asplialt'Ues  [Palccst.  vol.  I,  p.  238), 
after  inserting  copious  extracts  from  Galen,  concerning  the  properties  and  qual- 
ity of  the  water,  and  its  natural  history,  proceeds  to  account  for  the  strange 
fables  that  have  prevailed  with  regard  to  its  deadly  influence,  by  showing  that 
certain  of  the  ancients  confounded  this  lake  with  another,  bearing  the  same 
appellation  of  Asphaltites,  near  Babylon  ;  and  that  they  attributed  to  it  qualities 
which  properly  belonged  to  the  Babylonian  waters.     An  account  of  the  proper- 


1848.]  SURVEYS    AND    EXPLORATIONS.  497 

— the  latter  being  the  term  used  by  the  descendants  of  Ish- 
mael  to  perpetuate  the  remembrance  of  the  escape  of  Lot 
from  the  fearful  judgment  of  the  Almighty. 

Immediately  upon  the  arrival  of  the  American  Exploring 
party  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  depot  was  established 
at  Am  Jidy*  (Bngaddi),  on  the  western  bank,  which  was 
guarded  by  a  few  soldiers  obtained  from  the  Pasha  of  Jeru- 
salem. The  Sherif  and  his  servant  remained  at  the  depot, 
but  'Akil  and  his  Bedawin  followers  proceeded  round  the 
lake  to  Kerak,  to  establish  a  look-out  for  the  party  on  the 
Arabian  shore,  and  to  make  preparations  for  furnishing  them 
with  supplies,  and  ensuring  their  good  treatment  by  the 
inhabitants,  if  they  should  decide  to  visit  the  land  of  Moab. 

After  a  day  of  rest,  on  the  20th  of  April,  the  work  of  sur- 
veying and  exploring  the  lake  commenced.  Diagonal  sound- 
ings were  made  from  shore  to  shore — a  cast  being  taken  every 
half-mile.  The  strait  formed  by  the  peninsula  projecting  from 
the  eastern  shore,  was  carefully  and  critically  examined,  in 
order  to  prove  or  disprove  the  existence  of  the  ford  mentioned 
/>y  previous  travellers  in  the  Holy  Land.  Nothing  of  the 
Und  was  found.  On  the  contrary,  the  bottom  of  the  lake 
vas  ascertained  to  slope  gradually  upwards  to  its  southern 
».xtremity.  The  boats  proceeded  as  far  in  this  direction  as 
-iras  possible, — the  water  having  shoaled  so  much  that  they 
/ould  go  no  farther.  Within  three  hundred  yards  of  the 
.  outhern  shore,  near  the  cave  of  Usdum  (Sodom),  the  boats 
grounded  in  six  inches ;  but  several  members  of  the  party 
waded  through  the  water  to  the  land.      The  intense   heat 

ties  of  the  Babylonian  lake  occurs  in  the  writings  of  Vitruvius  (8.  3),  of  Pliny 
(H.  N.  35.  15)  of  Athenseus  (2.  5),  and  of  Xiphilinus,  (p.  252.)  From  their 
various  testimony,  it  is  evident,  that  all  the  phenomena  supposed  to  belong  to 
the  lake  Asjahaltites  near  Babylon,  -were,  from  the  similarity  of  their  names, 
ultimately  considered  as  the  natural  characteristics  of  the  Judaean  lake — the  two 
Asphaltites  being  confounded." — Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv,  p.  400. 

*  Lieutenant  Lynch  twice  refers  (Narrative,  pp.  291,  323)  to  the  "  Diamond 
of  the  Desert,"  mentioned  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  "  Talisman"  as  being  at  or 
near  Ain  Jidy  (the  fountain  of  the  kid).  He  is  certainly  in  error  in  this  respect^ 
The  fountain  in  which  Kenneth  and  Saladin  reposed,  was  that  of  Ain-es- 
Sultan,  or  the  fountain  of  Elisha,  near  Jericho. 


498  PILLAR   OP    SALT.  [1848. 

pouring  down  into  this  narrow  chasm,  and  reflected  from  the 
smooth  surface  of  the  sea,  and  the  barren  mountain  sides, 
soon  forced  them  to  retire,  however ;  and  on  the  28th  of 
April,  the  surveys  being  ended,  they  all  returned  to  camp. 

While  occupied  in  the  examination  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  sea,  a  singular  curiosity  was  discovered  on  the  western 
shore,  at  the  foot  of  the  salt  mountain  of  Usdum,  or  Sodom, 
and  about  two  miles  from  the  south  end  of  the  lake.  This 
is  described  by  Lieutenant  Lynch,  as  "  a  lofty,  round  pillar, 
standing  apparently  detached  from  the  general  mass,  at  the 
head  of  a  deep,  narrow,  and  abrupt  chasm.  We  immediately 
pulled  in  for  the  shore,"  says  he,  "and  Dr.  Anderson  and  I 
went  up  and  examined  it.  The  beach  was  a  soft,  slimy 
mud,  encrusted  with  salt,  and  a  short  distance  from  the 
water,  covered  with  saline  fragments  and  flakes  of  bitumen. 
We  found  the  pillar  to  be  of  solid  salt,  capped  with  carbonate 
of  lime,  cylindrical  in  front,  and  pyramidal  behind.  The 
upper  or  rounded  part  is  about  forty  feet  high,  resting  on  a 
kind  of  oval  pedestal,  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  slightly  decreases  in  size  upwards,  crumbles 
at  the  top,  and  is  one  entire  mass  of  crystallization.  A  prop, 
or  buttress,  connects  it  with  the  mountain  behind,  and  the 
whole  is  covered  with  debris  of  a  light  stone  color.  Its  pecu- 
liar shape  is  doubtless  attributable  to  the  action  of  the  winter 
rains.  The  Arabs  had  told  us  in  vague  terms  that  there  was 
to  be  found  a  pillar  somewhere  upon  the  shores  of  the  sea ; 
but  their  statements  in  all  other  respects  had  proved  so  un- 
satisfactory that  we  could  place  no  reliance  upon  them."* 

It  is  very  probable  that  this  is  the  same  pillar  which 
Josephus  saw,  and  which  he  avers  to  be  identical  With  that 
into  which  Lot's  wife  was  transformed  ;t — but  its  position, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  from  Zoar,  shows  plainly 
enough  that  his  theory  is  incorrect.  The  supposed  identity 
rests  merely  on  traditionary  authority,  though  many,  doubt- 
less, have  believed  in  it,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  topography 

*  Narrative,  p.  307.  f  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  book  1,  chap.  12 


1848.]  DIMENSIONS   OP   THE   LAKE.  499 

•f  the  adjacent  country,  and  whose  credulity  overbalanced 
their  judgment.*' 

The  task  of  surveying  the  lake,  and  making  the  necessary 
soundings,  was  found  to  be  attended  with  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty  and  inconvenience.  The  heat  of  the  sun,  whose 
burning  rays  were  concentrated  within  the  opening  between 
the  mountain  walls  bordering  the  lake  on  either  hand,  was 
almost  overpowering ;  the  arms  and  clothes  of  the  party  were 
completely  coated  over  with  the  greasy  salt ;  and  their  hands 
and  faces,  eyes,  lips,  and  nostrils,  smarted  with  the  incrusta- 
tions formed  by  the  spray  that  dashed  over  them.  On  the 
30th  of  April,  Lieutenant  Lynch  crossed  over  the  sea  to 
Moab ;  several  days  were  spent  in  visiting  the  interesting 
localities,  and  cruising  along  the  Arabian  shore ;  and  on  the 
5th  of  May — the  work  of  exploration  being  now  nearly 
ended — he  returned  with  his  party  to  Ain  TQrabeh,  whither 
the  camp  had  been  removed  in  charge  of  the  Sherif.  While 
the  Americans  were  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  sea,  they 
were  several  times  in  danger  of  being  attacked  by  the  un- 
friendly Arabs,  but  the  watchfulness  of  the  party  prevented  a 
surprise,  and  the  fidelity  of  'Akll  and  his  little  band,  united 
to  their  own  firmness  and  intrepidity,  secured  them  from 
molestation. 

(2.)  Widely  differing  statements  have  been  made,  from 
time  to  time,  in  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  this  body  of 
water, — some  authorities  making  it  fifty,  others  seventy,  and 
others  still  one  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  from  twelve  to 
twenty-five  in  breadth.  Dr.  Robinson  supposed  it  to  be  about 
fifty  miles  long  and  twelve  miles  broad.  His  observations  are 
usually  very  accurate ;  but  the  actual  measurements  of 
Lieutenant  Lynch  and  his  party  reduce  the  size  of  the  lake 

*  Clemens  of  Rome  mentions  the  same  pillar  referred  to  by  Josephus.  Justin 
the  Martyr,  Irenseus,  and  Tertullian,  also  speak  of  it ;  they  allege  that  it  gave 
periodical  evidence  of  its  feminine  nature,  and  Irenaeus  seriously  questions  how 
its  members  remained  so  long  entire.  Reland,  the  learned  orientalist,  relates  a 
tradition,— that  whenever  a  part  of  the  pillar  was  washed  away  by  the  rains  it 
was  supernaturally  renewed,— which  might  have  relieved  the  good  and  pious, 
but  superstitious  father,  from  his  difficulty. 


500  ANALYSIS    OF   THE    WATER.  [1848. 

from  even  his  estimate.  According  to  those,  it  appears  to  be 
a  trifle  over  forty  miles  in  length,  and  its  average  breadth  is 
between  eight  and  nine  miles.  Undoubtedly,  the  dimensions 
vary  with  the  season ;  but  they  can  never  exceed  those  de- 
termined by  the  American  Expedition,  to  any  great  extent, 
as  they  were  ascertained  but  a  short  time  after  the  season  of 
floods,  and  before  the  volume  of  water  swollen  by  '  the  rising 
of  the  Jordan'  could  have  been  seriously  diminished  by  evap- 
oration. 

In  regard  to  the  depth  of  water  in  the  sea,  there  has  like- 
wise been  a  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Some  travellers  have 
fancied,  from  the  whirlpools  produced  by  the  current  flowing 
in  from  the  Jordan,  and  the  returning  eddy,  that  it  was 
bottomless ;  and  others,  with  greater  haste  than  wisdom,  have 
adopted  the  plausible  supposition  that,  inasmuch  as  it  had 
no  visible  outlet,  there  must  be  some  subterraneous  communi- 
cation with  the  Mediterranean  sea,  though  the  latter  is  thir- 
teen hundred  feet  above  it.  The  soundings  of  the  American 
Exploring  party  show  that  the  greatest  depth  of  the  water — 
at  a  point  three  miles  distant  from  the  Arabian  shore  and 
twelve  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan — is  two  hundred 
and  eighteen  fathoms,  or  upwards  of  thirteen  hundred  feet ; 
and  that  from  this  point,  the  bottom  slopes  upward  on  every 
side,  but  more  gradually  towards  the  western  shore  and  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  lake. 

The  water  of  this  sea  is  more  salt  than  that  of  the  ocean, 
or  of  any  other  similar  body  of  water  in  the  known  world. 
It  contains  about  one- fourth  part  of  its  weight  of  saline  con- 
tents in  a  state  of  perfect  desiccation,  and  forty-one  parts  in 
a  hundred  in  a  state  of  simple  crystallization.  An  analysis 
of  the  water  was  made  by  Dr.  Marcet,  in  1807,  who  says 
that  it  "is  perfectly  transparent,  and  does  not  deposit  any 
crystals  on  standing  in  close  vessels.  Its  taste  is  peculiarly 
bitter,  saline,  and  pungent.  Solutions  of  silver  produce  from 
it  a  very  copious  precipitate,  showing  the  presence  of  marine 
acid.  Oxalic  acid  instantly  discovers  lime  in  the  water. 
The  lime  being  separated,  both  caustic  and  carbonated  alka- 


1848.]  ITS    PROPERTIES.  501 

lies  readily  throw  down  a  magnesian  precipitate.  Solutions 
of  barytes  produce  a  cloud,  showing  the  existence  of  sulphuric 
acid.  No  alumine  can  be  discovered  in  the  water  by  the 
delicate  test  of  succinic  acid  combined  with  ammonia.  A 
small  quantity  of  pulverized  sea  salt  being  added  to  a  few 
drops  of  the  water,  cold  and  undiluted,  the  salt  was  readily 
dissolved  with  the  assistance  of  gentle  trituration,  showing 
that  the  Dead  Sea  is  not  saturated  with  common  salt."*  As 
the  result  of  his  analysis,  Dr.  Marcet  ascertained  that  the 
proportions  of  the  following  substances  contained  in  one 
hundred  grains  of  the  water,  were : — 

Grains. 
Muriate  of  Lime        -------  3.920 

Muriate  of  Magnesia     -------     10.246 

Muriate  of  Soda -        -        10.360 

Sulphate  of  Lime 0.054 

24.580 

Similar  results  have  subsequently  been  obtained  by  other 

scientific  men  who  have  examined  and  analyzed  the  water. 

Its  density,  too,  is  greater  than  the  water  of  the  Atlantic. 

It   was  ascertained    by  Lieutenant   Lynch,  distilled   water 

being  regarded  as  1,  that  that  of  the  Atlantic  was  1.02,  and 

that  of  the  Dead  Sea  1.13.     The  boats  of  the  Expedition 

drew  one  inch  less  water  on  the  sea  than  upon  the  Jordan, 

and  when  they  encountered  the  waves  they  seemed  to  strike 

against  them  with  a  dull  heavy  plash  like  molten  lead.    Such 

is  the  buoyancy  of  the  water  that  it  is  difficult  for  a  bather 

to  dive,  or  to  keep  his  feet  down ;  and  if  he  lies  upon  his 

back,  and  draws  his  knees  up  and  places  his  hands  on  them, 

he  can  roll  over  with  scarce  any  exertion.     It  was  once  said 

that  nothing  could  sink  in  the  bottom  of  this  sea,  but  this, 

of  course,  is  wholly  fabulous. 

To  the  touch  the  water  seems  greasy,  and  causes  the  hands 

and  face  to   smart  with  a  sort  of  prickly  sensation.     It  is 

inodorous,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sulphurous  thermal 

springs  that  abound  along  the  shores  ;  but  it  is  always  exces- 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  1807. 


502  RAPID    EVAPORATION.  [1848. 

gively  bitter  and  offensive  to  the  taste.  It  likewise  possesses 
petrifying  qualities,  and  the  stunted  trees  and  bushes  that 
grow  upon  its  banks  and  die,  and  the  drift  wood  brought 
down  by  the  Jordan,  are  preserved  for  a  long  time  from  decay 
by  the  salts  with  which  they  become  saturated. 

"  My  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  Mr.  Erskine,"  says  Mr. 
Fisk,  "  bathed  in  the  Dead  Sea,  and  found  the  water  ex- 
tremely buoyant.  I  could  not  quite  make  up  my  mind  to 
the  experiment ;  but  I  tasted  the  water.  It  is  impossible  to 
express  the  intensity  of  its  nauseousness,  when  taken  in 
sufficient  quantity,  and  retained  long  enough  to  act  upon  the 
palate.  It  has  two  distinct  flavors  when  first  tasted,  which 
soon  unite  and  make  a  most  loathsome  compound.  The 
first  is  of  extremely  pungent  saltness,  and  capable  of  excoria- 
ting the  palate.  The  other  is  sheer  bitterness — and  so  bitter, 
that  it  seems  to  penetrate  the  skin  of  the  mouth.  Though 
I  took  no  more  than  about  half  a  wine  glass  full  in  my 
mouth,  and  did  not  swallow  any,  yet  my  palate  was  saturated 
with  it,  and  the  sensation  remained  during  the  day."* 

As  there  is  no  outlet  through  which  the  waters  accumu- 
lating in  this  reservoir  can  be  discharged,  the  evaporation  that 
takes  place  must  be  very  rapid ;  for,  in  addition  to  the  Jor- 
dan, it  receives  the  contents  of  several  other  tributary 
streams,  and  there  are  a  number  of  springs  along  its  shores, 
some  of  which  pour  their  waters  into  the  sea,  though  others 
are  absorbed  by  the  sand.  According  to  the  estimate  of  Dr. 
Shaw,  the  Jordan  alone  discharges  daily,  upon  an  average, 
6,090,000  tons  of  water.  Lieutenant  Lynch  also  made  an 
estimate  ;  but  his  figures  appear  to  have  startled  him,  and  he 
has  therefore  withheld  them  from  the  public.  "  The  streams," 
says  he,  "  from  the  fountains  of  Turabeh,  Ain  Jidy,  and  the 
salt  spring  near  Muhariwat,  were  almost  wholly  absorbed  in 
the  plains,  as  well  as  those  running  down  the  ravines  of 
Sudeir,  Seyal,  Mubtighghik,  and  Humeir,  and  the  torrent 
between  the  Arnon  and  the  Callirohoe.     Taking  the  mean 

*  Memorial  of  the  Holy  Land. 


1848.]        CAUSES  OF  THE  EVAPORATION.  503 

depth,  width,  and  velocity  of  its  more  constant  tributaries,  I 
had  estimated  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  Dead  Sea 
was  hourly  receiving  from  them  at  the  time  of  our  visit,  but 
th  j  calculation  is  one  so  liable  to  error,  that  I  withhold  it.  It 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  that  the  quantity  varies  with 
the  season,  being  greater  during  the  winter  rains,  and  much 
less  in  the  heat  of  summer."* 

After  the  notion  in  regard  to  a  subterraneous  outlet  began 
to  be  questioned,  and  the  process  of  evaporation  constantly 
going  on  came  to  be  better  understood,  it  was  said  that  the 
rapidity  of  the  latter  was  occasioned  by  the  volcanic  fires  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Scientific,  as  well  as  uneducated 
men,  seemed  determined  to  make  what  was  peculiar  still 
more  strange  and  singular,  and  to  explain  everything,  if  the 
expression  may  be  used,  in  as  difficult  a  manner  as  possible. 
A  simple  fact,  easy  to  be  ascertained,  puts  an  end  at  once  to 
the  theory  of  subterraneous  fires.  At  the  surface  of  the  sea 
the  water  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  degrees  warmer  than 
below,  and  at  the  bottom  it  vawae  but  little  from  50  deg. 
No  doubt,  the  evaporation  is  very  rapid ;  but  we  must  re- 
member that  the  sea  is  confined  between  two  lofty  walls  of 
mountains,  in  a  narrow  chasm,  and  that  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  the  burning  rays  of  a  tropical  sun  are  poured 
directly  upon  it.  No  gentle  breezes  fan  its  waters  and  cool 
the  air ;  but  the  hot  simoom  of  the  Arabian  Desert  that 
whistles  through  the  dark  gorges  of  Wady-el-Arabah,  and 
disturbs  its  usually  silent  waters,  produces  the  same  effect 
with  the  intense  heat. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  with  regard  to  the  rapidity  of 
the  evaporation,  from  the  fact  that  the  atmosphere,  within  a 
wide  circuit  around  the  lake,  is  impregnated  with  the  sub- 
stances contained  in  its  waters.  The  fetid  smell  noticed  by 
every  traveller  was  once  supposed  to  be  a  property  peculiar 
to  the  sea  itself;  but  this  is  now  admitted  to  be  produced  by 
the  hot  sulphurous  springs  on  its  margin.     Everything  metal- 

*  Narrative,  p.  377. 


504  ATMOSPHERE.  [1848. 

lie  exposed  to  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere  is  bronzed  by  it 
The  shores  of  the  sea,  the  stones  on  the  beach  and  in  the 
torrent  beds  opening  towards  it,  and  the  sides  of  the  adjacent 
mountains,  are  coated  with  saline  incrustations.*  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  lower  or  southern  part  of  the  lake, 
where  the  mountains  are  more  abrupt,  and  the  water  much 
shallower, — in  general  not  averaging  over  thirteen  feet  in 
depth.  A  hazy  cloud,  as  if  of  heated  vapor,  hangs  suspended 
over  the  southern  sea,  and  to  the  north  there  is  a  thin  trans- 
parent cloud,  of  a  purple  tinge,  almost  always  to  be  seen, 
except  when  driven  away  by  the  fierce  sirocco. 

Popular  credulity  at  one  time  went  so  far  as  to  maintain 
that  the  atmosphere  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  cer- 
tain seasons,  was  fatal  to  animal  life.  The  mineral  substan- 
ces contained  in  its  waters  are  certainly  not  poisonous,  and 
there  is  no  vegetable  decomposition  to  render  the  air  impure. 
The  sulphur  springs  load  the  atmosphere  with  offensive  odors, 
but  it  is  far  from  being  pestilential.  Strangers  visiting  the 
sea  complain  of  the  drowsy  feeling  produced,  and  the  oppres- 
sive sensation  about  the  head  which  they  often  experience. 
But  these  effects  are  to  be  attributed  as  much  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  as  to  the  character  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  it  is  not 
at  all  strange  that  those  unused  to  the  climate  should  be 
attacked  with  fevers,  occasioned  by  exposure  in  a  place  where 
its  evils  are  enhanced  in  a  tenfold  degree. 

Without  a  more  careful  and  accurate  analysis  of  the 
waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  its  tributaries,  than  has  yet 
been  made,  it  would  be  difficult  to  account  satisfactorily  for 
the  existence  of  the  saline  substances  found  in  the  former ; 
but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that  the  Jordan,  and  the 
other  streams  that  flow  into  it,  bring  down  a  great  proportion 
of  them,  and  that  the  large  deposit  now  there  is  the  gradual 
accumulation  of  ages.  This  idea  seems  to  derive  strength 
from  the  fact,  that  this  deposit  is  much  the  greatest  at  the 

*  Stones  lying  exposed  on  the  shores  of  the  Jordan,  twenty  miles  above  the 
Dead  Sea,  are  often  coated  with  salt;  but  this  is  probably  a  deposition  of  the 
atmosphere  carried  thither  by  the  simooms  which  blow  in  this  direction. 


1848.]  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  505 

southern  end  of  the  lake,  where  the  earthy  matters  and 
foreign  substances  would  naturally  be  carried  by  the  strong 
current  flowing  in  from  the  Jordan. 

(3.)  From  the  dimensions  of  the  sea,  as  previously  given, 
it  will  be  inferred  that  it  is  nearly  oblong  in  shape ;  and  it  is 
rarely  less  than  five,  or  more  than  eight  or  nine  miles,  in 
breadth,  except  directly  at  the  ends.  Its  eastern  and  western 
shores  run  almost  duly  north  and  south.  In  the  continuity 
of  its  plan,  or  the  general  regularity  of  its  shape  and  form, 
there  is  a  fault,  occasioned  by  a  peninsula,  shaped  like  a  foot 
and  ankle  with  the  toe  pointing  to  the  north,  that  projects 
out  from  the  eastern  shore  about  eight  miles  from  the  south 
end  of  the  lake,  and  is  separated  from  the  western  bank  by  a 
strait  or  channel  averaging  two  miles  in  width,  and  between 
six  and  seven  miles  long.  South  of  the  peninsula  the  water 
is,  upon  an  average,  only  thirteen  feet  deep ;  but  in  the 
northern  sea  the  average  is  over  one  thousand  feet.  The 
bottom  of  the  channel  shelves  gradually  downwards  from  the 
shallow  bed  of  the  southern  sea  to  the  greater  depth  of  the 
upper.  Opposite  the  north  point  of  the  peninsula,  the  water 
is  upwards  of  one  hundred  fathoms  deep  in  the  centre  of  the 
channel,  and  opposite  the  heel,  or  southern  point,  it  is  only 
three  fathoms. 

On  either  hand,  the  sea  is  flanked  by  lofty  and  arid  moun- 
tains. On  the  west  are  the  sterile  cliffs  of  Judea,  from  one 
thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  high,  in  some  places  looking 
as  if  they  had  been  scathed  with  fire,  in  others  wearing  a 
rose-colored  or  purple  hue,  and  elsewhere  presenting  a  chalky 
appearance.  At  the  foot  of  these  barren  icinerated  hills,  are 
banks  of  sand  and  dust,  impalpable  as  ashes,  and  innumera- 
ble boulders  bleached  by  long  exposure  to  the  sun.  Masses 
of  conglomerate,  too,  may  be  seen,  here  and  there,  wasting 
away  beneath  the  winter  rain,  or  glowing  in  the  hot  sun  that 
beats  upon  this  desert  waste  during  the  long-continued  sum- 
mer. On  the  east,  the  sea  is  skirted  by  the  rugged  precipices 
and  battlemented  heights  of  Moab,  that  farm  the  continuation 
of  the  Hauran  range.     They,  also,  are  comparatively  bare  of 

22 


506  GEOLOGY.  [1848 

all  vegetation,  and  cast  their  dark  shadows,  from  an  altitude 
of  between  two  and  three  thousand  feet,  far  down  upon  the 
dark  and  dreary  pool  imbosomed  amid  those  calcined  moun- 
tains— from  year  to  year,  from  age  to  age,  bearing  testimony 
to  the  truth,  that  although  the  judgments  of  the  Almighty 
may  be  delayed  for  long,  they  are  nevertheless  sure  and  certain. 

The  eastern  shore  is  evidently  of  volcanic  formation. 
Trap,  tufa,  granite,  gneiss,  dolomite,  and  pieces  of  scoriated 
lava,  are  found  in  considerable  abundance.  The  prevalent 
formation  is  brown  limestone  lying  in  horizontal  strata  above 
yellow  sand-stone.  On  the  western  shore,  no  sand-stone  has 
been  discovered,  but  the  mountains  there  are  mainly  compos- 
ed of  limestone.  The  rocks  are,  of  course,  much  discolored 
by  the  substances  deposited  by  the  atmosphere.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  the  sulphur  springs,  they  are  unusually  dark 
and  gloomy,  and  elsewhere,  particularly  along  the  borders  of 
the  southern  sea,  they  are  whitened  with  the  incrustations  of 
salt.  The  peninsula  before  mentioned  is  a  bold  and  rocky 
promontory,  from  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  average  height,  and 
at  its  northern  extremity  or  point  attaining  an  elevation  of 
near  one  hundred  feet:  it  is  composed  of  limestone,  with 
loose  calcareous  marl,  and  soft  chalky  flints  scattered  along 
the  shore.  Mud  flats,  sandy  plains  or  deltas,  at  the  openings 
of  the  ravines  and  gorges,  which  support  a  scanty  vegetation 
alternating  with  rocky  precipices,  and  strips  of  low  and  marshy 
or  broken  ground,  covered  with  sand  and  gravel  or  minute 
angular  fragments  of  flint,  or  pebbles  of  bituminous  lime- 
stone, form  the  immediate  shore,  or  beach,  of  the  lake. 

On  the  east  the  shore  is  very  bold  and  abrupt,  the  depth 
of  water  in  the  northern  sea  averaging  about  ninety  fathoms 
within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  beetling  cliffs  ;  and  if  the 
Jordan  once  continued  its  course  through  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
its  channel  was  probably  on  this  side  of  the  lake.  The 
bottom  of  the  northern  sea  is  composed  of  brown  or  blue  mud, 
sometimes  but  not  usually  hard,  of  sand  and  crystals  of  salt. 
Mud  and  crystals  of -salt  are  found  all  along  the  bottom  of  the 
lake,  through  the  channel,  and  in  the  southern  sea.     In  the 


1848.]  TRIBUTARY    STREAMS.  507 

last,  however,  there  appears  to  be  a  greater  abundance  of  salt 
than  is  found  in  other  parts  of  the  lake ;  and  at  the  extreme 
south  end,  there  appears  to  be  a  layer  of  slimy  mud,  a  foot  deep, 
resting  upon  a  thick  crust  of  salt,  beneath  which  is  another  foot 
of  mud,  and  still  below  this  is  the  firm  bottom.  At  this  extrem- 
ity of  the  lake,  there  is  an  extensive  mud  flat,  reaching  to  the 
foot  of  high  hills  bounding  the  basin  occupied  by  the  sea  to  the 
southward,  in  which  there  is  an  opening  corresponding  to  El- 
Ghor  at  the  north,  which  has  led  to  the  supposition  that  the 
Jordan  once  had  a  continuous  course  through  this  opening  or 
ravine,  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  one  of  the  arms  of  the  Red 
Sea.  This  ravine  is  known  as  Wady-el-Arabah,  and  the 
supposition  connected  with  it  will  be  hereafter  noticed. 

Salt  is  found  so  abundantly  along  the  southern  sea,  that  it 
is  quite  an  important  article  of  traffic.  Most  of  the  bitumen, 
also,  that  is  met  with  in  commerce,  is  obtained  from  this  sea, 
and  is  hence  called  Jewish  bitumen.  Sulphur  is  plentiful, 
and  it  is  sometimes  procured  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  in 
large  lumps.  There  are  indications,  likewise,  of  nitre,  gyp- 
sum, and  alum.  Bromine  is  contained  in  the  water,  and  to 
the  presence  of  this  substance  its  caustic  taste  must  in  great 
part  be  attributed. 

Besides  the  Jordan,  the  most  important  tributaries  of  the 
Dead  Sea  are  the  river  Arnon,  which  enters  it  from  the  east, 
through  a  narrow  opening  in  the  mountains  flanked  by  walls 
of  naked  rocks  piled  in  ledges  on  either  hand ;  and  the  Brook 
Kidron,  which  has  its  source  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  and 
discharges  its  waters,  usually  very  diminutive  in  volume, 
through  the  Wady-en-Nar,  or  Ravine  of  Fire.  There  are, 
also,  a  great  number  of  springs  on  the  margin  of  the  lake, 
the  waters  of  most  of  which  are  absorbed  by  the  sandy  soil. 
The  largest  of  these  are  the  hot  springs  of  Callirohoe  on  the 
Arabian  shore,  which  discharges  considerable  water  through 
their  outlet,  the  Zurka  Main.  Almost  all  the  springs,  too, 
in  the  southern  valley,  north  of  Wady  Talh,  which  appears 
at  this  day  to  be  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  flow  into  the  former. 


508  ANIMAL    AND    VEGETABLE    LIFE.  [1848 

(4.)  Few  travellers  have  written  more  eloquently  upon  the 
Dead  Sea  than  Chateaubriand,  and  few  have  made  more 
grievous  mistakes.  "Its  solitary  abysses,"  he  remarks,  "can 
sustain  the  life  of  no  living  thing ;  no  vessel  ever  ploughed  its 
bosom ;  its  shores  are  without  trees,  without  birds,  without 
verdure  ,*  its  water,  frightfully  salt,  is  so  heavy  that  the 
highest  wind  can  hardly  raise  it."  Fish  are  scarce,  it  is 
true, — being  only  found  at  or  near  the  mouths  of  the  tribu- 
tary streams, — and  occasionally  a  few  shell  fish  have  been 
seen  along  the  shore.  Panthers  now  and  then  disturb  the 
solitude  with  their  wailing  cry,  and  once  in  a  while  a  hare 
may  be  discovered  darting  in  and  out  among  the  cane-brakes 
or  the  sedgy  thickets  in  the  ravines.  Swallows  and  par- 
tridges have  their  homes  in  the  cliffs  above,  and  ducks  and 
snipes  dwell  amid  the  tufts  of  cane  and  clumps  of  flags  grow- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  the  springs,  and  often  sail  out  upon  the 
lake  or  disport  along  its  shores.  Hawks  and  herons  are  not 
uncommon.  Doves  and  catbirds,  also,  are  quite  plentiful. 
Several  kinds  of  insects  are  found  here,  and  butterflies  are 
very  abundant.  The  fabulous  accounts  of  the  olden  time 
are  therefore  disproved,  and  though  this  scene  be  so  drear 
and  desolate,  it  is  still  the  home  of  many  a  living  thing. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  ravines  and  gorges,  which,  during  the 
rainy  season,  or  throughout  the  year,  form  the  beds  of  tribu- 
tary streams,  there  are  plains  or  deltas,  more  or  less  exten- 
sive, frequently  projecting  for  some  distance  out  into  the 
lake.  The  mountain  sides  and  summits  are,  indeed,  almost 
destitute  of  vegetation ;  but  the  ravines  are  fringed,  here  and 
there,  with  tamarisks  and  oleanders,  with  osher*  and  ghtirrah 

*  The  fruit  of  the  osher  is  the  genuine  apple  of  Sodom,  about  whieh  so  much 
has  been  said,  and  which,  according  to  Tacitus.  (Hist.  lib.  v,  cap.  7)  is  fair 
without,  but  within  all  dust  and  ashes.  It  is  a  tall,  perennial  plant,  and  has 
thick,  dark-green,  and  glossy  leaves.  The  flowers  are  interminal,  umbelli- 
ferous, and  of  a  purple  color.  They  are  succeeded  by  globose  pods  about  the 
size  of  a  large  apple,  which  contain  numerous  flat  brown  seeds,  each  of  which 
is  furnished  with  a  silky  plume  or  pappus  If  the  bark  be  cut,  or  a  leaf  torn 
from  the  plant,  a  viscous,  milky  juice  exudes  from  the  wound,  which  is  exceed- 
ingly acrid,  and  is  used  in  Egypt  as  a  depilatory. 


1848.]  POSITION    OP    THE    FIVE    CITIES.  509 

trees,  with  the  nubk,  the  palm,  the  olive,  and  the  pistachia. 
Beds  of  yellow  henbane,  of  nightshade  and  mignionette,  not 
only  destitute  of  fragrance  but  entirely  scentless,  are  mingled 
with  patches  of  prickly  cucumbers;  and  in  the  moist  places 
of  the  plains  and  deltas  there  are  thickets  of  cane,  and  clumps 
of  reeds  and  sedges,  and  tufts  of  fern  and  water  lilies.  But 
the  foliage  is  usually  of  a  tawny  color,  occasioned  by  the 
sulphurous  vapors  floating  in  the  air;  and  the  leaves  and 
fruit  of  most  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  have  a  salt  and  bitter 
taste,  and  often  seem  to  be  completely  saturated  with  the 
saline  substances  with  which  the  atmosphere  is  loaded. 

Tolerably  successful  attempts  have  been  made,  in  some 
instances,  to  cultivate  the  plains  and  deltas  along  the  borders 
of  the  lake,  and  very  good  crops  of  barley  and  dhoura  have 
not  unfrequently  been  obtained.  Where  irrigation  has  been 
practicable,  still  greater  success  has  attended  the  labors  of  the 
husbandman.  In  the  land  of  Moab,  beyond  the  barren  strip 
lying  upon  the  shore  of  the  sea,  the  country  is  tolerably  fer- 
tile, in  the  low  grounds  and  intervales ;  but  it  is  liable  to 
visitations  from  the  locusts,  which  oftentimes  commit  dread- 
ful ravages. 

(5.)  For  centuries  speculation  has  been  rife  with  regard  to 
the  probable  position  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  and  the  manner 
of  their  destruction.  It  has  repeatedly  been  said,  that  their 
ruins  have  been  observed  near  the  western  side  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  but  this  fact  is  not  well  authenticated.  Josephus, 
indeed,  avers,  that  the  shadows  of  the  five  cities  could  be 
seen  in  his  time,  yet  it  is  not  at  all  clear  that  he  intended  to 
be  literally  understood.*  Strabo  professes  to  give  the  actual 
circumference  of  the  ruins  of  Sodom  as  being  sixty  stadia,t 
but  the  correctness  of  his  statement  is  more  than  doubtful! 

*   History  of  the  Jewish  War,  book  iv,  chap.  8. 

■j-   Geographic  lib.  xvi,  cap.  2. 

J  The  Geography  of  Strabo  is  of  great  value  to  the  present  age,  but  some  of 
its  statements  are  grossly  erroneous.  For  instance,  he  asserts  that  there  were 
thirteen  cities  in  the  plain  now  occupied  by  the  Dead  Sea  (lib.  xvi,  cap.  2). 
Stephen  of  Byzantium  is  more  moderate,  and  makes  them  only  ten  in  number 
(art.  Eifli/j-i.)— According  to  the  Scriptural  account,  there  were  but  five,-«- 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Admah  and  Zeboim,  and  Bela,  or  Zoar,  (Genesis  xiv,  2j 


510  SUPPOSED    SITE    OF    THE    RUINS.  [1818 

The  supposed  site  of  the  ruins  has  frequently  been  pointed 
out  to  travellers  by  the  old  inhabitants,  though  the  former 
could  never  discover  them.  Cost.igan  fancied  he  had  found 
the  ruins  of  Gomorrah  on  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  Wa  !y 
Mubughghik,  five  or  six  miles  north  of  the  salt  mountain  of 
Usdum,  and  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake;  but  Lieuten- 
ant Lynch  shows  that  they  were  merely  the  remains  of  an 
old  aqueduct  constructed  for  purposes  of  irrigation.*  It  is 
far  from  impossible  that  the  ruins  of  the  doomed  cities  may 
actually  have  been  seen  at  a  remote  day,  and  that  they  have 
been  gradually  covered  up  by  the  accumulated  deposits 
collected  at  the  southern  end  of  the  lake  ;  but  the  probability 
is,  that  the  alleged  remains  were  the  fragments  of  some  of 
the  fortifications  or  other  structures,  erected  by  the  Jews,  or, 
at  a  later  day,  by  the  Romans,  on  the  banks  of  the  lake. 

History  and  tradition,  both  sacred  and  profane,  dating 
back  for  thousands  of  years,  concur  in  the  one  great  fact, 
that  the  Dead.  Sea,  or  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  covers  the  spot 
once  occupied  by  the  guilty  cities.  Until  quite  recently, 
too,  it  has  been  pretty  generally  conceded,  that  the  Jordan 
originally  continued  its  course  along  the  fertile  vale  of  Siddim, 
after  leaving  the  valley  of  El-Ghor,  and  then  passed  through 
the  Wady-el-Arabah,  whose  general  features  have  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  former,  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah. 
But  the  examinations  made  by  Dr.  Robinson  and  the  Count 
de  Bertou — the  latter  of  whom  travelled  through  the  Wady- 
el-Arabah — go  to  show  that  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 
bed  of  the  Jordan  is  below  that  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  that  the 
Wady-el-Arabah  rises  gradually  as  far  south  as  Wady  Talh, 
the  dividing  ridge.  This  would  indicate  that  a  lake,  or  sea, 
without  any  outlet,  has  always  existed  where  the  Dead  Sea 
now  is ;  and  that  opinion  has  latterly  been  gaining  ground. 

An  able  and  intelligent  writer!  has  recently  examined  this 

subject  with  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  collated  all* the  facts 

and  circumstances  favoring  the  opinion  which  he  has  adopted 

as  the  result  of  his  investigations, — that  a  lake,  though  of 

*  Narrative,  p.  304.  •)•  Rev.  J.  A.  Wylie. 


1848.J  MODERN    THEORY.  511 

much  smaller  dimensions  than  the  present,  previously  existed 
in  the  valley  of  Siddim.  This  supposition,  he  insists,  is  un- 
avoidable. "The  bed  of  the  Jordan,"  he  says,  "is  so  far 
below  the  level  of  El-Arabah  and  the  Red  Sea,  that  it  is 
impossible,  in  the  nature  of  things,  it  ever  could  have  flowed 
through  that  valley.  And  this,  we  conceive,  implies  the 
existence  of  a  lake.  But  though  we  are  obliged  to  suppose 
that  a  lake  existed,  we  are  not  obliged  to  suppose  that  it  was 
as  large  as  it  is  at  present.  It  is  natural  to  think  that  so 
terrible  a  catastrophe  happening  on  its  shores  would  make 
some  alteration  in  its  dimensions,  and  most  probably  enlarge 
them.  And  if  we  examine  the  lake,  we  find  that  it  is,  in 
fact,  composed  of  two  lakes,  an  upper  and  a  lower — the 
former  being  forty  miles  long,  and  the  latter  ten,  assuming 
the  whole  at  fifty.  The  division  between  the  two  lakes  is 
strongly  marked.  On  the  shores  the  mountains  approach,  so 
as  almost  to  separate  them  from  above  ;  and  in  the  bottom  a 
high  ridge  of  ground  runs  across  from  shore  to  shore,  so  as 
almost  to  divide  them  below  the  surface.  The  water  which 
covers  this  ridge  is  seldom  more  than  two  feet  in  depth,  and 
the  ford  which  the  bottom  offers,  may  be  crossed  by  the 
Arabs  at  all  seasons.*  This  ford  is  about  three  hours  (nine 
miles)  from  the  extremity  of  the  lake,  on  the  authority  of 
Burckhardt.  Now,  if  we  suppose  that  the  lake,  in  former 
times,  terminated  at  this  point,  as  the  form  of  the  mountains 
and  the  nature  of  the  bottom  seem  to  indicate,  then,  between 
the  extremity  of  the  lake,  and  the  low  range  of  hills  which 
bound  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  towards  the  south,  and  from 
the  head  of  El-Arabah,  we  have  a  level  and  fertile  plain  of 
seventeen  miles  in  length,  on  which  we  suppose  the  cities 

*  The  soundings  made  under  the  direction  of  Lieutenant  Lynch  have  settleu 
the  fact  that  there  is  actually  no  such  ford  m  existence.  "  We  ascertained," 
says  the  Narrative  (p.  303),  "  that  there  is  no  ford  as  laid  down  in  the  map  of 
Messrs.  Robinson  and  Smith.  One  of  the  Arabs  said  that  there  was  once  a  ford 
here,  but.all  the  others  denied  it."  At  the  narrowest  part  of  the  lake,  where 
the  mountains  approach  nearest  to  each  other,  the  water  is  from  two  to  three 
fathoms  deep  most  of  the  way  across  ;  and  yet,  according  to  Burckhardt,  this  ia 
the  locality  of  the  supposed  ford. 


512    SUPPOSED  RELATIVE  POSITIONS  OP  THE  CITIES.    [1848. 

stood.  The  south-eastern  portion  of  this  plain  is  still  very 
fertile ;  the  whole  is  abundantly  irrigated.  Its  great  depth 
draws  all  the  streams  of  El-Arabah  into  it.  Numerous  rivu- 
lets descend  on  both  sides  from  the  hills ;  and  to  these  causes, 
no  doubt,  it  owed  the  fertile  aspect  in  which  it  appeared  to 
Lot,  when  he  chose  it  for  the  range  of  his  flocks. 

"  Moreover,  it  is  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  five 
cities  stood  on  this  plain,  than  that  they  were  scattered  over 
so  large  a  space  as  that  which  is  now  occupied  by  the  lake. 
Each  of  the  cities,  we  are  told,  had  a  king ;  but  the  kings 
of  those  days  resembled  the  village  sheikhs  of  modern  times ; 
and  even  granting  that  the  cities  were  opulent,  and  had 
dependent  villages  around  them,  still  the  plain  was  amply 
sufficient  to  maintain  them.  In  the  East,  the  towns  were 
thickly  planted,  seldom  at  greater  distances,  as  we  learn  from 
the  ruins,  than  three  or  four  miles — a  space  so  large  as  that 
which  the  waters  of  the  lake  now  cover,  considering  its  great 
fertility,  instead  of  containing  five,  would  have  contained 
fifty  cities.  From  the  expression  frequently  used  in  Scrip- 
ture— '  Sodom  and  her  daughters,'  and  from  the  circumstance 
of  the  destruction  of  the  cities  being  often  mentioned  simply 
as  the  '  overthrow  of  Sodom,'  we  infer  that  Sodom  was  the 
capital,  or  at  least  the  principal  city  of  the  Pentapolis  ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  other  towns  which  perished  with  her 
were  ranged  around  her  at  no  great  distances.  The  exact 
part  of  the  plain  in  which  Sodom  was  situated,  we  do  not 
know ;  but  the  following  consideration  will  satisfy  us,  that 
its  site  could  not  have  been  far  from  what  are  now  the  south- 
ern limits  of  the  lake. 

"  When  Sodom  fell,  the  little  town  of  Zoar  afforded  refuge 
to  Lot.  The  time  which  Lot  occupied  in  going  thither,  will 
give  us  the  distance  of  Sodom,  the  probable  capital,  of  Zoar. 
We  read  that  '  there  came  two  angels  to  Sodom  at  even ; 
and  Lot  sat  in  the  gate  of  Sodom.  And  he  said,  '  Behold 
now,  my  lords,  turn  in,  I  pray  you,  into  your  servant's  house 
and  tarry  all  night.'  During  night,  the  angels  disclosed  the 
approaching    destruction  of  the  city,  and  enjoined  Lot   to 


1848.]  CONCLUSIONS    OF    WYLIE.  513 

leave  it,  which  he  did  at  day-break,  but  not  earlier.  ' When 
the  morning  arose,  then  the  angels  hastened  Lot,  &c.' 
Having  set  out,  he  reached  the  gates  of  Zoar  at  sunrise — 
4  The  sun  was  risen  upon  the  earth,  when  Lot  entered  into 
Zoar.'  It  thus  appears  that  Lot  occupied  only  two  hours  in 
travelling  between  the  two  cities — the  time  from  day-break 
till  sunrise.  Sodom,  consequently,  could  not  have  been  more 
than  six  miles  distant  from  Zoar ;  and  thus,  its  site  would 
fall  within  the  limits  of  the  lower  lake ;  for  the  head  of  that 
lake  is  three  hours  from  Zoar, — the  site  of  Zoar,  which  is 
known  at  this  day,  adjoining  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
lake.  Now,  if  we  suppose  that  Sodom  was  the  capital  of 
the  cities,  and  had  her  tributary  towns  arranged  around  her, 
it  will  appear  probable  that  the  site  of  all  these  cities  was 
comprised  in  what  is  now  the  basin  of  the  lower  lake.  The 
ground  on  which  they  stood  being  depressed  by  their  over- 
throw, the  lake  adjoining  them  on  the  north  poured  its 
waters  over  the  low  barrier,  and  covered  from  the  eye  of  man, 
this  scene  of  enormous  wickedness.  Every  consideration 
tends  to  this  conclusion.  The  geographical  arrangement  of 
the  region,  and  the  construction  of  the  lake,  indicate  that  at 
some  former  period  it  has  been  enlarged,  and  the  traces  of  the 
pristine  beauties  of  the  plain,  which  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
some  places  on  its  remaining  portion,  tell  us  that  once  it 
was  '  well  watered  everywhere' — '  even  as  the  garden  of  the 
Lord.'"* 

The  survey  of  Lieutenant  Lynch  disproves  one  of  the 
assumed  facts  upon  which  Mr.  Wylie  bases  his  theory,  and 
on  which  he  lays  great  stress — viz.  that  of  the  existence  of  a 
dividing  ridge  between  the  upper  and  lower  lakes.  As  there 
is  a  strong  current  putting  into  the  lake,  which  is  deflected 
by  Mount  Usdum  and  the  southern  shore,  it  is  likewise 
exceedingly  probable,  that  the  slime  and  mud  accumulated 
here  have  been  deposited  in  this  manner.!  Indeed,  this  is 
much  more  likely  than  that  the  bed  of  the  southern  lake  was  the 

*  Modern  Judea,  etc.,  compared  with  Ancient  Prophecy. 
+  Lynch's  Narrative,  p.  295. 

22* 


514  EXAMINATIONS    OF    LIEUTENANT    LYNCH.         [1848. 

plain  upon  which  the  cities  stood,  and  which  was  covered  by 
the  overflow  of  water  from  the  upper  sea.  The  fertility,  too, 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Wylie,  as  being  characteristic  of  the  south- 
eastern plain,  is  hardly  consistent  with  the  facts  obtained  by 
the  American  Expedition. 

Lieutenant  Lynch  remarks  that  the  mountains  on  all  sides 
appear  much  older  than  the  sea,  and  that  the  torrents,  par- 
ticularly those  pouring  into  the  upper  lake,  plunge  down 
abruptly.  His  inference  from  the  facts  and  appearances 
before  him  was,  that  the  entire  chasm  was  a  sunken  plain, 
and  that  the  depression  was  greatest  at  the  northern  end. 
In  summing  up  the  conclusions  at  which  he  arrived,  he  says : — 
"  The  inference  from  the  Bible,  that  this  entire  chasm  was  a 
plain  sunk  and  '  overwhelmed1  by  the  wrath  of  God,  seems  to 
be  sustained  by  the  extraordinary  character  of  our  soundings. 
The  bottom  of  this  sea  consists  of  two  submerged  plains,  an 
elevated  and  a  depressed  one;  the  last  averaging  thirteen, 
and  the  former  about  thirteen  hundred  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. Through  the  northern,  and  largest  and  deepest  one,  in 
a  line  corresponding  with  the  bed  of  the  Jordan,  is  a  ravine, 
which  again  seems  to  correspond  with  the  Wady-el-Jeib,  or 
ravine  within  a  ravine,  at  the  south  end  of  the  sea. 

"Between  the  Jabok  and  this  sea,  we  unexpectedly  found 
a  sudden  break-down  in  the  bed  of  the  Jordan.  If  there  be  a 
similar  break,  in  the  water  courses  to  the  south  of  the  sea, 
accompanied  with  like  volcanic  characters,  there  can  scarce 
be  a  doubt  that  the  whole  Ghor  has  sunk  from  some  extraor- 
dinary convulsion  ;  preceded,  most  probably,  by  an  eruption 
of  fire,  and  a  general  conflagration  of  the  bitumen  which 
abounded  in  the  plain.  I  shall  ever  regret  that  we  were  not 
authorized  to  explore  the  southern  Ghor  to  the  Red  Sea. 

"  All  our  observations  have  impressed  me  forcibly  with  the 
conviction,  that  the  mountains  are  older  than  the  sea.  Had 
their  relative  levels  been  the  same  at  first,  the  torrents  would 
have  worn  their  beds  in  a  gradual  and  correlative  slope ; — 
whereas,  in  the  northern  section,  the  part  supposed  to  have 
been  so  deeply  engulfed,  although  a  soft,  bituminous  limestone 


1848.]  GENERAL    CONCLUSIONS.  515 

prevails,  the  torrents  plunge  down  several  hundred  feet,  while 
on  both  sides  of  the  southern  portion,  the  ravines  come  down 
without  abruptness,  although  the  head  of  Wady  Kerak  is 
more  than  a  thousand  feet  higher  than  the  head  of  Wady 
Ghuweir.  Most  of  the  ravines,  too,  *  *  *  have  a  south- 
ward inclination  near  their  outlets,  that  of  Zurka  Main 
especially,  which,  next  to  the  Jordan,  must  pour  down  the 
greatest  volume  of  water  in  the  rainy  season.  But  even  if 
they  had  not  that  deflection,  the  argument  which  has  been 
based  on  this  supposition  would  be  untenable  ;  for  tributaries, 
like  all  other  streams,  seek  the  greatest  declivities  without 
regard  to  angular  inclination."* 

It  is,  indeed,  to  be  regretted,  so  far  as  the  elucidation  of 
this  subject  is  concerned,  that  Lieutenant  Lynch  felt 
restrained  by  his  instructions  from  prosecuting  his  reconnais- 
sance through  the  Wady-el-Arabah,  or  lower  Ghor,  to 
the  Red  Sea ;  for,  unless  such  an  examination,  carefully 
made,  shall  disclose  insuperable  difficulties,  it  must  still 
appear  highly  probable  that  there  has  been  a  depression,  or 
subsidence,  of  the  whole  Ghor  from  the  Jabok  to  Wady 
Talh  ;  and  that  the  Jordan  once  flowed  into  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  and  carried  with  it  the  saline  and  other  substances 
which,  since  the  sudden  convulsion  that  interrupted  its 
course,  have  been  accumulating  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  Sea  of  the  Plain. 

Taking  the  account  given  in  Scripture  as  the  guide,  this 
inference  appears  to  be  the  only  plausible  one.  The  same 
form  of  expression  ("  Bela,  which  is  Zoar")  used  in  Genesis 
xiv,  2,  in  describing  the  cities  of  the  plain,  is  employed  by 
the  inspired  historian  in  the  following  verse,  when  he  speaks 
of  the  vale  of  Siddim,  which,  he  says,  uis  the  Salt  Sea." 
Now  Zoar  was  not  known  by  that  name  till  after  Lot  had 
taken  refuge  there ;  and  is  it  not  fair — nay,  even  necessary — 
to  infer,  that  the  Salt  Sea  had  no  existence  until  the  vale  of 
Siddim  was  overwhelmed  ?  Furthermore,  it  seems  strange, 
that  Moses  did  not  mention  the  Salt  Sea,  if  it  previously 

*  Narrative,  p.  378,  et  seq. 


516  DESTRUCTION    OF    THE    CITIES.  [1848. 

existed,  when  he  describes  the  country  inhabited,  by  the 
Canaanites,  which  extended  to  Lasha,  on  the  Persian  Gulf;* 
and  is  it  not  inconsistent  with  the  fertile  character  of  the 
plain,  to  which  he  repeatedly  refers,  that  it  should  be  watered 
by  a  stream  terminating  in  a  salt  pool  ?  After  the  quarrel 
between  the  herdsmen  of  Abram  and  Lot,  also,  the  latter 
chose  all  the  plain  of  Jordan,  and  journeyed  to  the  east;  but 
no  mention  is  made  of  his  crossing  any  sea,  as  he  would  have 
done,  provided  there  had  been  one  in  existence.! 

But  it  may  be  said,  that  the  vale  of  Siddim  occupied  the 
southern  part  of  the  basin,  where  the  shallow  lake  now  is. 
This  is  hardly  probable,  however,  although  it  is  quite  likely 
that  the  five  cities  stood  upon  or  near  the  south  end  of  the 
plain  ;  for  we  are  told  that  their  kings  went  out  to  meet 
Chedorlaomer  "and  the  kings  that  were  with  him,"  who 
were  approaching  from  the  north,  and  "joined  battle  with 
them  in  the  vale  of  Siddim."$ 

With  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  cities  were 
destroyed,  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  conjecture,  for  the 
most  part  idly,  or  at  least  unprofitably  hazarded.  "We  know 
that  the  Almighty  usually  operates  with  secondary  causes ; 
and  it  may  be  that  volcanic  agency,  as  has  been  presumed, 
was  the  physical  instrument  employed  by  him  in  this  case, 
that  the  Salt  Sea  was  formed  by  the  subsidence  of  the  plain, 
or  from  the  damming  up  of  the  Jordan  by  a  current  of  lava, 
or  both  combined  :  and  that  the  showers  of  fire  and  brimstone 
were  occasioned  by  the  fall  of  volcanic  ejections.  §  But  the 
most  reasonable  supposition  is,  that,  simultaneously  with  the 
fire  and  brimstone  rained  out  of  heaven  upon  the  doomed 
cities,  volcanic  eruptions  took  place  ;  that  the  slime  pits,  or 
pits  of  bitumen  according  to  the  version  of  the  Septuagint, 
with  which  the  plain  was  filled, I!  were  inflamed;  and  that 
the  combustion  of  the  soil  or  the  underlying  strata  was 
followed  by  the  subsidence  of  the  plain.1T 

Be  this  as  it  may, — there  lies  that  solitary   and  desolate 

*  Genesis,  x,  19.  f  Ibid.,  xiii,  11.  $  Ibid.,  xiv,  8. 

§  See  Daubeny  on  Volcanoes,       \  Genesis,  xiv,  10.      If  Ibid.,  xix,  24,  25. 


1848.]'  RETURN    OP    THE    PARTY.  517 

lake,  the  seal  and  the  witness  to  the  fearful  judgment  pro- 
nounced by  Jehovah  himself  upon  those  who  had  erred  past 
all  forgiveness.  Within  its  dark  waters  thousands  of  animate 
beings  were  suddenly  engulfed — cut  off,  in  an  instant, 
while  cherishing,  as  we  can  well  imagine,  many  of  the  bright 
hopes  and  joys  and  aspirations  that  animate  our  hearts,  yet 
so  tainted  with  the  leprosy  of  vice  and  crime,  that  Nature 
shuddered  as  she  received  them  in  her  bosom.  Both  the 
infidel  and  the  christian  historian  concur  in  the  main  facts 
connected  with  this  catastrophe.  The  former  may  continue 
to  scoff  and  doubt,  yet  his  reflections  will  often  give  rise  to 
emotions  of  fear  ;  but  the  latter,  though  trembling  with  awe, 
consoles  himself  with  the  thought  that  God  is  merciful  as 
well  as  just ! 

(6.)  Warned  by  the  rapidly  increasing  heat,  and  the 
debilitated  state  of  his  party,  that  the  summer  solstice  was 
fast  approaching,  Lieutenant  Lynch  broke  up  his  encamp- 
ment on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the  morning  of  the 
10th  of  May.  The  boats  were  taken  to  pieces,  and  placed 
on  the  backs  of  the  camels ;  and  the  whole  party  commenced 
their  return  journey  to  the  Mediterranean  coast,  proceeding 
overland  by  way  of  Jerusalem,  across 

"  Those  holy  fields, 
Over  whose  acres  walked  those  blessed  feet, 
Which,  fourteen  hundred  years  ago,  were  nail'd 
For  our  advantage,  on  the  bitter  cross." 


THE    END. 


UN:       HSITY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


^m — 8  193C 


PEC  25 1983 


JUN   11  1936 


mmr 


RECC1R.SEP27  33 

U5t  SEP  2.    '88 


OCT  831936 


— 


^\.W? 


■     ■  ^'  •■: 


.   121Vlar'57PT 


.WN  3  01983 

•i  circ.  HAY  3  *  w 


LD  21-100m-7,'33 


\jtr**imr»<i**w,m*im  «*»•*»»**»»»  w«M»*^»MPt 


%:. 


mm 


*  pmfitit 


:  [till  [flHMftftHllll    '    ! 


